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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

  1. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 march 1928 – In California, the St. Francis Dam fails; the resulting floods kill 431 people.

    St. Francis Dam

    The St. Francis Dam, or the San Francisquito Dam, was a concrete gravity dam located in San Francisquito Canyon in northern Los Angeles County, California, United States, that was built between 1924 and 1926. The dam failed catastrophically in 1928, killing at least 431 people in the subsequent flood,[2][3] in what is considered to have been one of the worst American civil engineering disasters of the 20th century and the third-greatest loss of life in California history.[4][5][6]

    The dam was built to serve the growing water needs of the city of Los Angeles, creating a large regulating and storage reservoir that was an integral part of the Los Angeles Aqueduct. It was located in San Francisquito Canyon of the Sierra Pelona Mountains, about 40 miles (64 km) northwest of downtown Los Angeles, and approximately 10 miles (16 km) north of the present day city of Santa Clarita.

    However, a defective soil foundation and design flaws led to the dam's collapse just two years after its completion. Its failure ended the career of William Mulholland, the general manager and chief engineer of the Bureau of Water Works and Supply (now the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power).[7]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference CHL was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Stansell, Ann (August 2014). Memorialization and Memory of Southern California's St. Francis Dam Disaster of 1928. California State University, Northridge (Thesis).
    3. ^ Stansell, Ann C. (February 2014). "Roster of St. Francis Dam Disaster Victims". Santa Clarita Valley History In Pictures.
    4. ^ Peter Hartlaub (January 11, 2023). "How bad was California's 'Great Flood' of 1862? It was a torrent of horrors". San Francisco Tribune. Archived from the original on January 20, 2023. Retrieved July 3, 2023.
    5. ^ Jon Schlosberg (December 7, 2020). "California's 'trillion dollar' mega disaster no one is talking about". ABC 7 Chicago. Archived from the original on December 7, 2020. Retrieved September 20, 2021.
    6. ^ "California's Worst Disasters Remembered" seecalifornia.com. Quote: "600 people in 1928 died in the St. Francis Dam flood in Santa Clarita. It was around midnight that Southern California suffered one of the worst disasters in the state's history, second only to the earthquake and fire that devastated San Francisco in 1906."
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference William Mulholland was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  2. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 March 1781William Herschel discovers Uranus.

    Uranus

    Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun. It is a gaseous cyan-coloured ice giant. Most of the planet is made of water, ammonia, and methane in a supercritical phase of matter, which in astronomy is called 'ice' or volatiles. The planet's atmosphere has a complex layered cloud structure and has the lowest minimum temperature of 49 K (−224 °C; −371 °F) out of all the Solar System's planets. It has a marked axial tilt of 82.23° with a retrograde rotation period of 17 hours and 14 minutes. This means that in an 84-Earth-year orbital period around the Sun, its poles get around 42 years of continuous sunlight, followed by 42 years of continuous darkness.

    Uranus has the third-largest diameter and fourth-largest mass among the Solar System's planets. Based on current models, inside its volatile mantle layer is a rocky core, and surrounding it is a thick hydrogen and helium atmosphere. Trace amounts of hydrocarbons (thought to be produced via hydrolysis) and carbon monoxide along with carbon dioxide (thought to have been originated from comets) have been detected in the upper atmosphere. There are many unexplained climate phenomena in Uranus's atmosphere, such as its peak wind speed of 900 km/h (560 mph),[22] variations in its polar cap, and its erratic cloud formation. The planet also has very low internal heat compared to other giant planets, the cause of which remains unclear.

    Like the other giant planets, Uranus has a ring system, a magnetosphere, and 28 orbiting natural satellites. Its ring system is extremely dark, with only about 2% of the incoming light reflected. Uranus's satellite system contains 18 known regular moons, of which 13 are small inner moons. Further out are the larger five major moons of the planet: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon. Orbiting at a much greater distance from Uranus are the nine known irregular moons. The planet's magnetosphere is highly asymmetric and has many charged particles, which may be the cause of the darkening of its rings and moons.

    Uranus is visible to the naked eye, but it is very dim and was not classified as a planet until 1781, when it was first observed by William Herschel. About seven decades after its discovery, consensus was reached that the planet be named after the Greek god Uranus (Ouranos), one of the Greek primordial deities. As of 2024, it had been visited up close only once when in 1986 the Voyager 2 probe flew by the planet.[23] Though nowadays it can be resolved and observed by telescopes, there is much desire to revisit the planet, as shown by Planetary Science Decadal Survey's decision to make the proposed Uranus Orbiter and Probe mission a top priority in the 2023–2032 survey, and the CNSA's proposal to fly by the planet with a subprobe of Tianwen-4.[24]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBCOUP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference OED was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "Uranian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference VSOP87 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ a b c Cite error: The named reference nasafact was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference CSeligman was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ a b c d e f g h i Cite error: The named reference fact was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Souami_Souchay_2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Jean Meeus, Astronomical Algorithms (Richmond, Virginia: Willmann-Bell, 1998) p271. Bretagnon's complete VSOP87 model. It gives the 17th @ 18.283075301au. http://vo.imcce.fr/webservices/miriade/?forms Archived 7 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine IMCCE Observatoire de Paris / CNRS Calculated for a series of dates, five or ten days apart, in August 2050, using an interpolation formula from Astronomical Algorithms. Perihelion came very early on the 17th. INPOP planetary theory
    10. ^ "HORIZONS Planet-center Batch call for August 2050 Perihelion". ssd.jpl.nasa.gov (Perihelion for Uranus planet-center (799) occurs on 2050-Aug-19 at 18.28307512au during a rdot flip from negative to positive). NASA/JPL. Archived from the original on 7 September 2021. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
    11. ^ a b c d e f g Cite error: The named reference Seidelmann Archinal A'hearn et al. 2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Jacobson Campbell et al. 1992 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ de Pater, Imke; Lissauer, Jack J. (2015). Planetary Sciences (2nd updated ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 250. ISBN 978-0521853712. Archived from the original on 26 November 2016. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference Pearl_et_al_Uranus was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mallama_et_al was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ Cite error: The named reference Podolak Weizman et al. 1995 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    17. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Lunine 1993 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Mallama_and_Hilton was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    19. ^ "Encyclopedia - the brightest bodies". IMCCE. Archived from the original on 24 July 2023. Retrieved 29 May 2023.
    20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lindal Lyons et al. 1987 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Conrath Gautier et al. 1987 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    22. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sromovsky & Fry 2005 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    23. ^ "Exploration | Uranus". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 7 August 2020. Retrieved 8 February 2020. Jan. 24, 1986: NASA's Voyager 2 made the first - and so far the only - visit to Uranus.
    24. ^ Jones, Andrew (21 December 2023). "China's plans for outer Solar System exploration". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2024.
     
  3. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 March 1931Alam Ara, India's first talking film, is released.

    Alam Ara

    Alam Ara (transl.Ornament of the World) is a 1931 Indian Hindustani-language historical fantasy film directed and produced by Ardeshir Irani. It revolves around a king and his two wives, Navbahaar and Dilbahaar, who are childless; soon, a fakir (Muhammad Wazir Khan) tells the king that the former wife will give birth to a boy, later named Qamar (Master Vithal), but the child will die following his 18th birthday if Navbahaar cannot find the necklace he asks for. Meanwhile, the king finds out that Dilbahaar falls for the senapati Adil (Prithviraj Kapoor), leading the king to arrest him and evicts his pregnant wife, who later gives birth to Alam Ara (Zubeida).

    Irani was inspired to make Alam Ara after watching the 1929 American part-talkie Show Boat. The story was adapted from the Bombay-based dramatist Joseph David's play of the same name. Made on a budget of 40,000 (equivalent to 12 million or US$150,000 in 2023), principal photography was handled by Adi M. Irani within four months in Bombay. Because the studio was located near a railway track, it was filmed mostly during the nighttime to avoid noise from the active trains. Following filming, Ardeshir Irani finished the sound recording using the single-system recording. Firozshah Mistry and B. Irani served as the music directors.

    Alam Ara was released on 14 March 1931 and performed well at the box office. Critics were appreciative, with the performance and songs getting the most attention, though some of whom criticised the sound recording. In addition to the successes, the film was also widely considered a major breakthrough for the Indian film industry and Ardeshir Irani's career with its status as the country's first sound film. Although no print or gramophone record of the film is known to survive, making it a lost film, surviving artefacts include its stills and posters. In 2017, the British Film Institute declared it as the most important of any lost films produced in India.

     
  4. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 March 1906Rolls-Royce Limited is incorporated.

    Rolls-Royce Limited

    Rolls-Royce Limited was a British luxury car and later an aero-engine manufacturing business established in 1904 in Manchester by the partnership of Charles Rolls and Henry Royce. Building on Royce's good reputation established with his cranes, they quickly developed a reputation for superior engineering by manufacturing the "best car in the world". The business was incorporated as "Rolls-Royce Limited" in 1906, and a new factory in Derby was opened in 1908. The First World War brought the company into manufacturing aero-engines. Joint development of jet engines began in 1940, and they entered production in 1944.[1] Rolls-Royce has since built an enduring reputation for the development and manufacturing of engines for military and commercial aircraft.

    In the late 1960s, Rolls-Royce was adversely affected by the mismanaged development of its advanced RB211 jet engine and consequent cost over-runs, though it ultimately proved a great success. In 1971, the owners were obliged to liquidate their business. The useful portions were bought by a new government-owned company named "Rolls-Royce (1971) Limited", which continued the core business but sold the holdings in British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) almost immediately and transferred ownership of the profitable but now financially insignificant car division to Rolls-Royce Motors Holdings Limited, which it sold to Vickers in 1980. Rolls-Royce obtained consent to drop the '1971' distinction from its company name in 1977, at which point it became known once again as "Rolls-Royce Limited".

    The Rolls-Royce business remained nationalised until 1987 when, after having renamed the company to "Rolls-Royce plc", the British government sold it to the public in a share offering. Rolls-Royce plc still owns and operates Rolls-Royce's principal business, although, since 2003, it is technically a subsidiary of Rolls-Royce Holdings plc, a listed holding company.

    A marketing survey in 1987 showed that only Coca-Cola was a more widely known brand than Rolls-Royce.[2]

    1. ^ "Rolls-Royce, Our History". Archived from the original on 19 July 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
    2. ^ "Rolls-Royce shares will fly". The Times, Wednesday, 29 April 1987; p. 25; Issue 62755
     
  5. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 March 1976 – British Prime Minister Harold Wilson resigns, citing personal reasons.

    Harold Wilson

    James Harold Wilson, Baron Wilson of Rievaulx, KG, OBE, PC, FRS, FSS (11 March 1916 – 24 May 1995) was a British statesman and Labour Party politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom twice, from October 1964 to June 1970 and again from March 1974 to April 1976. He was the Leader of the Labour Party from 1963 to 1976, and was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1945 to 1983. Wilson is the only Labour leader to have formed administrations following four general elections.

    Born in Huddersfield, Yorkshire, to a politically active middle-class family, Wilson studied philosophy, politics and economics at Jesus College, Oxford. He was later an economic history lecturer at New College, Oxford, and a research fellow at University College, Oxford. Elected to Parliament in 1945, Wilson was appointed to the Attlee government as a Parliamentary Secretary; he became Secretary for Overseas Trade in 1947, and was elevated to the Cabinet shortly thereafter as President of the Board of Trade. Following Labour's defeat at the 1955 election, Wilson joined the Shadow Cabinet as Shadow Chancellor, and was moved to the role of Shadow Foreign Secretary in 1961. When Labour Leader Hugh Gaitskell died suddenly in January 1963, Wilson won the subsequent leadership election to replace him, becoming Leader of the Opposition.

    Wilson led Labour to a narrow victory at the 1964 election. His first period as prime minister saw a period of low unemployment and relative economic prosperity, although this would later become hindered by significant problems with Britain's external balance of payments. The Wilson government oversaw significant societal changes in the United Kingdom, abolishing both capital punishment and theatre censorship, partially decriminalising male homosexuality in England and Wales, relaxing the divorce laws, limiting immigration, and liberalising birth control and abortion law. In the midst of this programme Wilson called a snap election in 1966, which Labour won with a much increased majority. Wilson's government armed Nigeria during the Biafran War. In 1969, he sent British troops to Northern Ireland.

    After losing the 1970 election to Edward Heath's Conservatives, Wilson chose to remain in the Labour leadership, and spent four years back in the role of Leader of the Opposition before leading Labour through the February 1974 election, which resulted in a hung parliament. Wilson was appointed prime minister for a second time; he called a snap election in October 1974, which gave Labour a small majority. During his second term as prime minister, Wilson oversaw the referendum that confirmed the UK's membership of the European Communities.

    In March 1976 he suddenly announced his resignation as prime minister. Wilson remained in the House of Commons until retiring in 1983, when he was elevated to the House of Lords as Lord Wilson of Rievaulx. Historians evaluate Wilson in terms of leading the Labour Party through difficult political issues with considerable skill. Wilson's reputation was low when he left office and was still poor in 2016.[1] Key issues he faced included the role of public ownership, membership of the European Communities, and how to avoid committing British troops to the Vietnam War.[2] His stated ambitions of substantially improving Britain's long-term economic performance, applying technology more democratically, and reducing inequality went to some extent unfulfilled.[3]

    1. ^ Andrew S. Crines and Kevin Hickson, eds., Harold Wilson: The Unprincipled Prime Minister?: A Reappraisal of Harold Wilson (Biteback Publishing, 2016) p. 311.
    2. ^ Goodman, Geoffrey (1 July 2005). "Harold Wilson obituary". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 14 June 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
    3. ^ Ben Pimlott, Harold Wilson (1992), pp. 604–605, 648, 656, 670–677, 689.
     
  6. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 March 1958 – The United States launches the Vanguard 1 satellite.

    Vanguard 1

    Vanguard 1 (Harvard designation: 1958-Beta 2,[3] COSPAR ID: 1958-002B[1]) is an American satellite that was the fourth artificial Earth-orbiting satellite to be successfully launched, following Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2, and Explorer 1. It was launched 17 March 1958. Vanguard 1 was the first satellite to have solar electric power.[4] Although communications with the satellite were lost in 1964, it remains the oldest human-made object still in orbit, together with the upper stage of its launch vehicle.[1]

    Vanguard 1 was designed to test the launch capabilities of a three-stage launch vehicle as a part of Project Vanguard, and the effects of the space environment on a satellite and its systems in Earth orbit. It also was used to obtain geodetic measurements through orbit analysis.[5] Vanguard 1, being small and light enough to carry with one hand, was described by the Soviet Premier, Nikita Khrushchev, as "the grapefruit satellite".[6]

    1. ^ a b c d "Display: Vanguard 1 1958-002B". NASA. 14 May 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2021. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    2. ^ "Vanguard 1 Satellite details 1958-002B NORAD 00005". N2YO. Retrieved 1 February 2021.
    3. ^ "U.S. Space Objects Registry". Archived from the original on 6 October 2013. Retrieved 25 June 2009. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    4. ^ "Vanguard I The World's Oldest Satellite Still in Orbit". Archived from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 24 September 2007. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    5. ^ O'Keefe, J. A.; Eckeis, Ann; Squires, R. K. (1959). "Vanguard Measurements Give Pear-Shaped Component of Earth's Figure". Science. 129 (3348): 565–566. doi:10.1126/science.129.3348.565.
    6. ^ "Vanguard I – The World's Oldest Satellite Still in Orbit". Spacecraft Engineering Department, U.S. Navy. Archived from the original on 19 September 2008. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
     
  7. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 March 1850American Express is founded by Henry Wells and William Fargo.

    American Express

    American Express Company (Amex) is an American bank holding company and multinational financial services corporation that specializes in payment cards. It is headquartered at 200 Vesey Street, also known as American Express Tower, in the Battery Park City neighborhood of Lower Manhattan. Amex cards are primarily categorized in the order of Green, Gold, Platinum, and Black (Centurion), with a higher rank indicating a higher priority level.[6] The Amex logo, adopted in 1958, is a gladiator or centurion and appears on traveler's checks, charge cards and credit cards.[7]

    Amex is the fourth-largest card network globally based on purchase volume, behind China UnionPay, Visa, and Mastercard. 133.3 million Amex cards were in force worldwide as of December 31, 2022, with an average annual spend per card member of US$23,496. That year, Amex handled over 1.6 trillion in purchase volume on its network.[2] Amex is one of the largest US banks, and ts is ranked 77th on the Fortune 500[8] and 28th on the list of the most valuable brands by Forbes.[9] In 2023, it was ranked 63rd in the Forbes Global 2000.[10] Amex also owns a direct bank.

    Founded in 1850 as a freight forwarding company, Amex introduced financial and travel services during the early 1900s. It developed its first paper charge card in 1958, gold card in 1966, green card in 1969, platinum card in 1984, and Centurion Card in 1999. The "Don't Leave Home Without It" advertising campaign was introduced in 1975 and renewed in 2005. In the 1980s, Amex acquired and then divested a stake in Shearson.[11] In the 1990s, it discontinued cutting interchange fees for merchants who exclusively accepted Amex cards and expanded market share through targeted marketing campaigns. Amex converted into a bank holding company during the 2007–2008 financial crisis. Amex began operating airport lounges in 2013, offering access to certain cardholders.

    Amex had a 4.61% worldwide market share by payment volume in 2022, compared to 38.73% for Visa and 24% for Mastercard. While American Express credit cards are accepted at 99% of U.S. merchants that accept credit cards (Costco being the notable exception), they are much less accepted in Europe and Asia.[12][13]

    1. ^ "AXP Financials". nasdaq.com. SEC EDGAR Online. 2022.
    2. ^ a b "US SEC: Form 10-K American Express Company". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 9, 2024.
    3. ^ Grossman, Peter Z. (2006) [1987]. "2". American Express: The Unofficial History of the People Who Built the Great Financial Empire (Reprint). New York, USA: Beard Books. ISBN 1-58798-283-8.
    4. ^ Loomis, Noel M. (1968). Wells Fargo. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, Inc.
    5. ^ "Dow Jones Industrial Average". CNN. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013.
    6. ^ "'Level Up' Your Understanding of Amex Card Levels". www.americanexpress.com. Retrieved November 28, 2023.
    7. ^ "American Express Logo Review". Company Logos. 2008. Archived from the original on September 20, 2010. The initial trademark of 1958 described the gladiator in the American Express logo as a gladiator on a shield whereas the current American Express website lists the logo character as a Gladiator Head Design. However, there are many who believe that the gladiator is a centurion ...
    8. ^ "American Express". Fortune.
    9. ^ "Forbes Rankings - The World's Most Valuable Brands". Forbes.
    10. ^ "The Global 2000 2023". Forbes. Archived from the original on January 29, 2024. Retrieved February 7, 2024.
    11. ^ "COMPANY NEWS; AMERICAN EXPRESS FINISHES LEHMAN BROTHERS SPINOFF". The New York Times. June 1, 1994.
    12. ^ Houlis, AnnaMarie (September 15, 2023). "Is American Express Accepted Everywhere?". Forbes.
    13. ^ "Pay with Plastic or Cash?". Rick Steves.
     
  8. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    19 March 1861 – The First Taranaki War ends in New Zealand.

    First Taranaki War

    The First Taranaki War (also known as the North Taranaki War) was an armed conflict over land ownership and sovereignty that took place between Māori and the New Zealand government in the Taranaki district of New Zealand's North Island from March 1860 to March 1861.

    The war was sparked by a dispute between the government and Māori landowners over the sale of a property at Waitara, but spread throughout the region. It was fought by more than 3,500 imperial troops brought in from Australia, as well as volunteer soldiers and militia, against Māori forces that fluctuated between a few hundred and about 1,500.[1] Total losses among the imperial, volunteer and militia troops are estimated to have been 238, while Māori casualties totalled about 200, although the proportion of Māori casualties was higher.

    The war ended in a ceasefire, with neither side explicitly accepting the peace terms of the other. Although there were claims by the British that they had won the war, there were widely held views at the time they had suffered an unfavourable and humiliating result. Historians have also been divided on the result.[2] Historian James Belich has claimed that the Māori succeeded in thwarting the British bid to impose sovereignty over them, and had therefore been victorious. But he said the Māori victory was a hollow one, leading to the invasion of the Waikato.

    In its 1996 report to the Government on Taranaki land claims, the Waitangi Tribunal observed that the war was begun by the Government, which had been the aggressor and unlawful in its actions in launching an attack by its armed forces. An opinion sought by the tribunal from a senior constitutional lawyer stated that the Governor, Thomas Gore Browne, and certain officers were liable for criminal and civil charges for their actions.[3] The term "First Taranaki War" is opposed by some historians, who refer only to the Taranaki Wars, rejecting suggestions that post-1861 conflict was a second war.[4] The 1927 Royal Commission on Confiscated Land also referred to the hostilities between 1864 and 1866 as a continuation of the initial Taranaki war.[5]

    1. ^ Michael King (2003). The Penguin History of New Zealand. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-301867-1.
    2. ^ Belich, James (1986). The New Zealand Wars and the Victorian Interpretation of Racial Conflict (1st ed.). Auckland: Penguin. pp. 115–116. ISBN 0-14-011162-X.
    3. ^ "The Taranaki Report: Kaupapa Tuatahi by the Waitangi Tribunal, chapter 3" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
    4. ^ James Belich, in "The New Zealand Wars" (1986) dismisses as "inappropriate" the description of later conflict as a second Taranaki war (pp. 120).
    5. ^ "The Taranaki Report: Kaupapa Tuatahi by the Waitangi Tribunal, chapter 4" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 27 September 2007.
     
  9. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    20 March 1987 – The Food and Drug Administration approves the anti-AIDS drug, AZT.

    Zidovudine

    Zidovudine (ZDV), also known as azidothymidine (AZT), was the first antiretroviral medication used to prevent and treat HIV/AIDS. It is generally recommended for use in combination with other antiretrovirals.[6] It may be used to prevent mother-to-child spread during birth or after a needlestick injury or other potential exposure.[6] It is sold both by itself and together as lamivudine/zidovudine and abacavir/lamivudine/zidovudine.[6] It can be used by mouth or by slow injection into a vein.[6]

    Common side effects include headaches, fever, and nausea.[6] Serious side effects include liver problems, muscle damage, and high blood lactate levels.[6] It is commonly used in pregnancy and appears to be safe for the fetus.[6] ZDV is of the nucleoside analog reverse-transcriptase inhibitor (NRTI) class.[6] It works by inhibiting the enzyme reverse transcriptase that HIV uses to make DNA and therefore decreases replication of the virus.[6]

    Zidovudine was first described in 1964.[7] It was resynthesized from a public-domain formula by Burroughs Wellcome.[8] It was approved in the United States in 1987 and was the first treatment for HIV.[6][9] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.[10][11] It is available as a generic medication.[6]

    1. ^ "FDA-sourced list of all drugs with black box warnings (Use Download Full Results and View Query links.)". nctr-crs.fda.gov. FDA. Retrieved October 22, 2023.
    2. ^ "Retrovir 100mg Capsules - Summary of Product Characteristics (SmPC)". (emc). December 14, 2018. Retrieved January 23, 2021.
    3. ^ "Retrovir- zidovudine capsule Retrovir- zidovudine solution Retrovir- zidovudine injection, solution". DailyMed. Retrieved January 23, 2021.
    4. ^ "Active substance: Zidovudine" (PDF). European Medicines Agency. November 30, 2017.
    5. ^ "Zidovudine". PubChem Public Chemical Database. NCBI. Archived from the original on October 25, 2012. Retrieved April 10, 2011.
    6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Zidovudine". The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists. Archived from the original on December 21, 2016. Retrieved November 28, 2016.
    7. ^ Fischer J, Ganellin CR (2006). Analogue-based Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons. p. 505. ISBN 9783527607495. Archived from the original on September 8, 2017.
    8. ^ Linda Marsa, 'Toxic Hope', Los Angeles Times, 20 June 1993
    9. ^ Reeves JD, Derdeyn CA (2007). Entry Inhibitors in HIV Therapy. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 179. ISBN 9783764377830.
    10. ^ World Health Organization (2019). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 21st list 2019. Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/325771. WHO/MVP/EMP/IAU/2019.06. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
    11. ^ World Health Organization (2021). World Health Organization model list of essential medicines: 22nd list (2021). Geneva: World Health Organization. hdl:10665/345533. WHO/MHP/HPS/EML/2021.02.
     
  10. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    21 March 1925 – The Butler Act prohibits the teaching of human evolution in Tennessee.

    Butler Act

    The Butler Act was a 1925 Tennessee law prohibiting public school teachers from denying the book of Genesis account of mankind's origin. The law also prevented the teaching of the evolution of man from what it referred to as lower orders of animals in place of the Biblical account. The law was introduced by Tennessee House of Representatives member John Washington Butler, from whom the law got its name. It was enacted as Tennessee Code Annotated Title 49 (Education) Section 1922, having been signed into law by Tennessee governor Austin Peay.

    The law was challenged later that year in a famous trial in Dayton, Tennessee called the Scopes Trial which included a raucous confrontation between prosecution attorney and fundamentalist religious leader, William Jennings Bryan, and noted defense attorney and religious agnostic, Clarence Darrow. It was repealed in 1967.

     
  11. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    22 March 1972 – In Eisenstadt v. Baird, the United States Supreme Court decides that unmarried persons have the right to possess contraceptives.

    Eisenstadt v. Baird

    Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U.S. 438 (1972), was a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court that established the right of unmarried people to possess contraception on the same basis as married couples.

    The Court struck down a Massachusetts law prohibiting the distribution of contraceptives to unmarried people for the purpose of preventing pregnancy, ruling that it violated the Equal Protection Clause of the U.S. Constitution. The decision effectively legalized (heterosexual) premarital sex in the United States.[1]

    1. ^ Struening, Karen (2002). Liberty and Sexuality. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 48–49. ISBN 9780742512313.
     
  12. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    23 March 1994 – Aeroflot Flight 593 crashed into the Kuznetsk Alatau mountain, Kemerovo Oblast, Russia, killing 75.

    Aeroflot Flight 593

    Aeroflot Flight 593 was a passenger flight from Sheremetyevo International Airport, Moscow, Russia, to Kai Tak Airport in Hong Kong. On 23 March 1994, the aircraft operating the route, an Airbus A310-304 flown by Aeroflot, crashed into the Kuznetsk Alatau mountain range in Kemerovo Oblast, killing all 63 passengers and 12 crew members on board.

    No evidence of a technical malfunction was found. Cockpit voice and flight data recorders revealed the presence of the relief captain's 13-year-old daughter and 15-year-old son in the cockpit.[1] While seated at the controls, the pilot's son had unknowingly partially disengaged the A310's autopilot control of the aircraft's ailerons. The autopilot then disengaged completely, causing the aircraft to roll into a steep bank and a near-vertical dive. Despite managing to level the aircraft, the first officer over-corrected when pulling up, causing the plane to stall and enter into a spin; the pilots managed to level the aircraft off once more, but the plane had descended beyond a safe altitude to initiate a recovery and subsequently crashed into the mountain range. All 75 occupants died on impact.

     
  13. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    24 March 1993 – Discovery of Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9.

    Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9

    Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 (formally designated D/1993 F2) broke apart in July 1992 and collided with Jupiter in July 1994, providing the first direct observation of an extraterrestrial collision of Solar System objects.[5] This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and the comet was closely observed by astronomers worldwide. The collision provided new information about Jupiter and highlighted its possible role in reducing space debris in the inner Solar System.

    The comet was discovered by astronomers Carolyn and Eugene M. Shoemaker, and David Levy in 1993.[6] Shoemaker–Levy 9 (SL9) had been captured by Jupiter and was orbiting the planet at the time. It was located on the night of March 24 in a photograph taken with the 46 cm (18 in) Schmidt telescope at the Palomar Observatory in California. It was the first active comet observed to be orbiting a planet, and had probably been captured by Jupiter around 20 to 30 years earlier.

    Calculations showed that its unusual fragmented form was due to a previous closer approach to Jupiter in July 1992. At that time, the orbit of Shoemaker–Levy 9 passed within Jupiter's Roche limit, and Jupiter's tidal forces had acted to pull the comet apart. The comet was later observed as a series of fragments ranging up to 2 km (1.2 mi) in diameter. These fragments collided with Jupiter's southern hemisphere between July 16 and 22, 1994 at a speed of approximately 60 km/s (37 mi/s) (Jupiter's escape velocity) or 216,000 km/h (134,000 mph). The prominent scars from the impacts were more easily visible than the Great Red Spot and persisted for many months.

    1. ^ Howell, E. (February 19, 2013). "Shoemaker–Levy 9: Comet's Impact Left Its Mark on Jupiter". Space.com.
    2. ^ "Panoramic Picture of Comet P/Shoemaker-Levy 9". HubbleSite.org. Retrieved December 3, 2021.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Solem1995 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Solem1994 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ "Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 Collision with Jupiter". National Space Science Data Center. February 2005. Archived from the original on February 19, 2013. Retrieved August 26, 2008.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference IAU 5725 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  14. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    25 March 1995WikiWikiWeb, the world's first wiki, and part of the Portland Pattern Repository, is made public by Ward Cunningham.

    WikiWikiWeb

    Ward Cunningham in 2011

    The WikiWikiWeb is the first wiki, or user-editable website.[1] It was launched on 25 March 1995 by programmer Ward Cunningham and it has been a read-only archive since 2015. The name WikiWikiWeb originally also applied to the wiki software that operated the website, which was later renamed to "WikiBase".

    1. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference migrate was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  15. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    26 March 1975 – The Biological Weapons Convention comes into force.

    Biological Weapons Convention

    The Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), or Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BTWC), is a disarmament treaty that effectively bans biological and toxin weapons by prohibiting their development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use.[5] The treaty's full name is the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction.[5]

    Having entered into force on 26 March 1975, the BWC was the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban the production of an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.[5] The convention is of unlimited duration.[6] As of February 2023, 185 states have become party to the treaty.[7] Four additional states have signed but not ratified the treaty, and another eight states have neither signed nor acceded to the treaty.[8]

    The BWC is considered to have established a strong global norm against biological weapons.[9] This norm is reflected in the treaty's preamble, which states that the use of biological weapons would be "repugnant to the conscience of mankind".[10] It is also demonstrated by the fact that not a single state today declares to possess or seek biological weapons, or asserts that their use in war is legitimate.[11] In light of the rapid advances in biotechnology, biodefense expert Daniel Gerstein has described the BWC as "the most important arms control treaty of the twenty-first century".[12] However, the convention's effectiveness has been limited due to insufficient institutional support and the absence of any formal verification regime to monitor compliance.[13]

    1. ^ Article XIV, Biological Weapons Convention.
    2. ^ "Status of the Biological Weapons Convention". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
    3. ^ Biological Weapons Convention, Article XIV.
    4. ^ Biological Weapons Convention, Article XV.
    5. ^ a b c "Biological Weapons Convention – UNODA". United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
    6. ^ Article XIII, Biological Weapons Convention. Treaty Database, United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs.
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference :5 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Report on universalization activities, 2019 Meeting of States Parties to the Biological Weapons Convention, BWC/MSP/2019/3. Geneva, 8 October 2019.
    9. ^ Cross, Glenn; Klotz, Lynn (3 July 2020). "Twenty-first century perspectives on the Biological Weapon Convention: Continued relevance or toothless paper tiger". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 76 (4): 185–191. Bibcode:2020BuAtS..76d.185C. doi:10.1080/00963402.2020.1778365. ISSN 0096-3402. S2CID 221061960.
    10. ^ Preamble, Biological Weapons Convention. Treaty Database, United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs.
    11. ^ Feakes, D. (August 2017). "The Biological Weapons Convention". Revue Scientifique et Technique (International Office of Epizootics). 36 (2): 621–628. doi:10.20506/rst.36.2.2679. ISSN 0253-1933. PMID 30152458. S2CID 52100050.
    12. ^ Gerstein, Daniel (2013). National Security and arms control in the age of biotechnology: the Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-4422-2312-7.
    13. ^ Tucker, Jonathan (1 August 2001). "Biological Weapons Convention (BWC) Compliance Protocol". Nuclear Threat Initiative. Archived from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
     
  16. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    27 March 1915Typhoid Mary, the first healthy carrier of disease ever identified in the United States, is put in quarantine, where she would remain for the rest of her life.

    Mary Mallon

    Mary Mallon (September 23, 1869 – November 11, 1938), known commonly as Typhoid Mary, was an Irish-born American cook believed to have infected between 51 and 122 people with typhoid fever. The infections caused three confirmed deaths, with unconfirmed estimates of as many as 50. She was the first person in the United States identified as an asymptomatic carrier of the pathogenic bacteria Salmonella typhi.[1][2] She was forcibly quarantined twice by authorities, the second time for the remainder of her life because she persisted in working as a cook and thereby exposed others to the disease. Mallon died after a total of nearly 30 years quarantined.[3][4] Her popular nickname has since become a term for persons who spread disease or other misfortune, not always aware that they are doing so.

    1. ^ Marineli et al. 2013.
    2. ^ "'Typhoid Mary' Dies Of A Stroke At 68. Carrier of Disease, Blamed for 51 Cases and 3 Deaths, but Immune". The New York Times. November 12, 1938. Archived from the original on June 5, 2011. Retrieved February 28, 2010.
    3. ^ The Gospel of Germs: Men, Women, and the Microbe in American Life, ISBN 0674357086
    4. ^ Typhoid Mary: An Urban Historical, ISBN 160819518X
     
  17. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    28 March 1979 – A coolant leak at the Three Mile Island's Unit 2 nuclear reactor outside Harrisburg, Pennsylvania leads to the core overheating and a partial meltdown.

    Three Mile Island accident

    The Three Mile Island accident was a partial nuclear meltdown of the Unit 2 reactor (TMI-2) of the Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station on the Susquehanna River in Londonderry Township, near the capital city of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The reactor accident began at 4:00 a.m. on March 28, 1979, and released radioactive gases and radioactive iodine into the environment.[2][3] It is the worst accident in U.S. commercial nuclear power plant history.[4] On the seven-point logarithmic International Nuclear Event Scale, the TMI-2 reactor accident is rated Level 5, an "Accident with Wider Consequences".[5][6]

    The accident began with failures in the non-nuclear secondary system,[7] followed by a stuck-open pilot-operated relief valve (PORV) in the primary system,[8] which allowed large amounts of water to escape from the pressurized isolated coolant loop. The mechanical failures were compounded by the initial failure of plant operators to recognize the situation as a loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA). TMI training and operating procedures left operators and management ill-prepared for the deteriorating situation caused by the LOCA. During the accident, those inadequacies were compounded by design flaws, such as poor control design, the use of multiple similar alarms, and a failure of the equipment to clearly indicate either the coolant-inventory level or the position of the stuck-open PORV.[9]

    The accident crystallized anti-nuclear safety concerns among activists and the general public and led to new regulations for the nuclear industry. It accelerated the decline of efforts to build new reactors.[10] Anti-nuclear movement activists expressed worries about regional health effects from the accident.[11] Some epidemiological studies analyzing the rate of cancer in and around the area since the accident did determine that there was a statistically significant increase in the rate of cancer, while other studies did not. Due to the nature of such studies, a causal connection linking the accident with cancer is difficult to prove.[12][13][14][15][16][17][18] Cleanup at TMI-2 started in August 1979 and officially ended in December 1993, with a total cost of about $1 billion (equivalent to $2 billion in 2022).[19] TMI-1 was restarted in 1985, then retired in 2019 due to operating losses. Its decommissioning is expected to be complete in 2079 at an estimated cost of $1.2 billion.[20]

    1. ^ "PHMC Historical Markers Search". Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. Retrieved January 25, 2014.
    2. ^ Rogovin, Mitchell (January 1980). Three Mile Island: a report to the commissioners and to the public. The problem was caused from a cooling problem and caused some of the core to melt in the 2nd reactor. Volume I. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. p. 3. doi:10.2172/5395798. OSTI 5395798. Retrieved October 17, 2021.
    3. ^ Rogovin, Mitchell (January 1980). Three Mile Island: a report to the commissioners and to the public. Volume II Part 2 (PDF). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. p. 309. Retrieved October 17, 2021.
    4. ^ "Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident". U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved March 6, 2018.
    5. ^ Spiegelberg-Planer, Rejane (September 2009). "A Matter of Degree" (PDF). IAEA Bulletin. Vienna, Austria: Division of Public Information, International Atomic Energy Agency. 51 (1): 46. Retrieved October 16, 2021. A revised International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale (INES) extends its reach.
    6. ^ "The International Nuclear and Radiological Event Scale" (PDF). INES. International Atomic Energy Agency. August 1, 2008. Retrieved October 16, 2021. Level 5: Accident with Wider Consequences; Three Mile Island, USA, 1979 — Severe damage to the reactor core.
    7. ^ "Secondary system". U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. March 9, 2021. Retrieved October 16, 2021. The steam generator tubes, steam turbine, condenser, and associated pipes, pumps, and heaters used to convert the heat energy of the reactor coolant system into mechanical energy for electrical generation. Most commonly used in reference to pressurized water reactors.
    8. ^ "Primary system" (PDF). Reactor Concepts Manual, Pressurized Water Reactor. USNRC Technical Training Center. p. 4-3. Retrieved October 16, 2021. The primary system (also called the Reactor Coolant System) consists of the reactor vessel, the steam generators, the reactor coolant pumps, a pressurizer, and the connecting piping. A reactor coolant loop is a reactor coolant pump, a steam generator, and the piping that connects these components to the reactor vessel. The primary function of the reactor coolant system is to transfer the heat from the fuel to the steam generators. A second function is to contain any fission products that escape the fuel.
    9. ^ Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 211. ISBN 0-520-23940-7. Retrieved October 19, 2021. The commission concluded that Met Ed, GPU, Babcock & Wilcox, and the NRC shared responsibility for the shortcomings in operator training. Those inadequacies were compounded by design flaws that undermined the efforts of the plant staff to deal with the accident. They included the cacophony of undifferentiated alarms, the inconvenient arrangement of instruments and controls, and the absence of clear indicators either of levels of water in the pressure vessel or of the position of the stuck-open PORV.
    10. ^ "Michael Levi on Nuclear Policy". The Economist. March 31, 2011. Archived from the original on April 15, 2011. Retrieved April 6, 2011 – via YouTube.[time needed]
    11. ^ Gofman, John W.; Tamplin, Arthur R. (December 1, 1979). Poisoned Power: The Case Against Nuclear Power Plants Before and After Three Mile Island (Updated ed.). Emmaus, PA: Rodale Press. p. xvii. Retrieved October 1, 2013. ...we arrive at 333 fatal cancers or leukemias.
    12. ^ Hatch, Maureen C.; et al. (1990). "Cancer near the Three Mile Island Nuclear Plant: Radiation Emissions". American Journal of Epidemiology. 132 (3): 397–412. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a115673. PMID 2389745.
    13. ^ Levin, R.J. (2008). "Incidence of thyroid cancer in residents surrounding the Three-Mile Island nuclear facility". Laryngoscope. 118 (4): 618–628. doi:10.1097/MLG.0b013e3181613ad2. PMID 18300710. S2CID 27337295. Thyroid cancer incidence has not increased in Dauphin County, the county in which TMI is located. York County demonstrated a trend toward increasing thyroid cancer incidence beginning in 1995, approximately 15 years after the TMI accident. Lancaster County showed a significant increase in thyroid cancer incidence beginning in 1990. These findings, however, do not provide a causal link to the TMI accident.
    14. ^ Levin, R.J.; De Simone, N.F.; Slotkin, J.F.; Henson, B.L. (August 2013). "Incidence of thyroid cancer surrounding Three Mile Island nuclear facility: the 30-year follow-up". Laryngoscope. 123 (8): 2064–2071. doi:10.1002/lary.23953. PMID 23371046. S2CID 19495983.
    15. ^ Han, Y Y.; Youk, A.O.; Sasser, H.; Talbott, E.O. (November 2011). "Cancer incidence among residents of the Three Mile Island accident area: 1982–1995". Environ Res. 111 (8): 1230–1235. Bibcode:2011ER....111.1230H. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2011.08.005. PMID 21855866.
    16. ^ Hatch, M.C.; Wallenstein, S.; Beyea, J.; Nieves, J. W.; Susser, M. (June 1991). "Cancer rates after the Three Mile Island nuclear accident and proximity of residence to the plant". American Journal of Public Health. 81 (6): 719–24. doi:10.2105/AJPH.81.6.719. PMC 1405170. PMID 2029040.
    17. ^ "Backgrounder on the Three Mile Island Accident: Health Effects". U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Retrieved January 13, 2018. The NRC conducted detailed studies of the accident's radiological consequences, as did the Environmental Protection Agency, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (now Health and Human Services), the Department of Energy, and the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Several independent groups also conducted studies. The approximately 2 million people around TMI-2 during the accident are estimated to have received an average radiation dose of only about 1 millirem above the usual background dose. To put this into context, exposure from a chest X-ray is about 6 millirem and the area's natural radioactive background dose is about 100–125 millirem per year for the area. The accident's maximum dose to a person at the site boundary would have been less than 100 millirem above background. In the months following the accident, although questions were raised about possible adverse effects from radiation on human, animal, and plant life in the TMI area, none could be directly correlated to the accident. Thousands of environmental samples of air, water, milk, vegetation, soil, and foodstuffs were collected by various government agencies monitoring the area. Very low levels of radionuclides could be attributed to releases from the accident. Comprehensive investigations and assessments by several well-respected organizations, such as Columbia University and the University of Pittsburgh, have concluded that in spite of serious damage to the reactor, the actual release had negligible effects on the physical health of individuals or the environment.
    18. ^ Goldenberg, D, Russo, M, Houser, K, Crist, H, Derr JB, Walter V, Warrick JI, Sheldon KE, Broach J, Bann, DV (2017). "Altered molecular profile in thyroid cancers from patients affected by the Three Mile Island nuclear accident". Laryngoscope. 127 supplement 3: S1–S9. doi:10.1002/lary.26687. PMID 28555940. S2CID 40795419. Findings were consistent with observations from other radiation-exposed populations. These data raise the possibility that radiation released from [Three Mile Island] may have altered the molecular profile of [thyroid cancer] in the population surrounding TMI.
    19. ^ "14-Year Cleanup at Three Mile Island Concludes". The New York Times. August 15, 1993. Retrieved March 28, 2011.
    20. ^ Phillips, Susan (April 17, 2020). "Pennsylvania Raises Alarms on Transfer of Radioactive Three Mile Island Reactor". State Impact Pennsylvania. Retrieved January 13, 2023.
     
  18. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    29 March 1974Terracotta Army was discovered in Shaanxi province, China.

    Terracotta Army

    The Terracotta Army is a collection of terracotta sculptures depicting the armies of Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China. It is a form of funerary art buried with the emperor in 210–209 BCE with the purpose of protecting him in his afterlife.

    The figures, dating from approximately the late 200s BCE,[1] were discovered in 1974 by local farmers in Lintong County, outside Xi'an, Shaanxi, China. The figures vary in height according to their rank, the tallest being the generals. The figures include warriors, chariots and horses. Estimates from 2007 were that the three pits containing the Terracotta Army hold more than 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots with 520 horses, and 150 cavalry horses, the majority of which remain in situ in the pits near Qin Shi Huang's mausoleum.[2] Other, non-military terracotta figures have been found in other pits, including officials, acrobats, strongmen, and musicians.[3]

    1. ^ Lu Yanchou; Zhang Jingzhao; Xie Jun; Wang Xueli (1988). "TL dating of pottery sherds and baked soil from the Xian Terracotta Army Site, Shaanxi Province, China". International Journal of Radiation Applications and Instrumentation, Part D. 14 (1–2): 283–286. doi:10.1016/1359-0189(88)90077-5.
    2. ^ Portal 2007, p. 167.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  19. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    30 March 1863 – Danish prince Wilhelm Georg is chosen as King George of Greece.

    George I of Greece

    George I (Greek: Γεώργιος Α΄, Geórgios I; 24 December 1845 – 18 March 1913) was King of Greece from 30 March 1863 until his assassination in 1913.

    Originally a Danish prince, he was born in Copenhagen, and seemed destined for a career in the Royal Danish Navy. He was only 17 years old when he was elected king by the Greek National Assembly, which had deposed the unpopular Otto. His nomination was both suggested and supported by the Great Powers: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire and the Russian Empire. He married Grand Duchess Olga Constantinovna of Russia in 1867, and became the first monarch of a new Greek dynasty. Two of his sisters, Alexandra and Dagmar, married into the British and Russian royal families. Edward VII of the United Kingdom and Alexander III of Russia were his brothers-in-law, and George V of the United Kingdom, Christian X of Denmark, Haakon VII of Norway, and Nicholas II of Russia were his nephews.

    George's reign of almost 50 years (the longest in modern Greek history) was characterized by territorial gains as Greece established its place in pre–World War I Europe. Britain ceded the Ionian Islands peacefully in 1864, while Thessaly was annexed from the Ottoman Empire after the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878). Greece was not always successful in its territorial ambitions; it was defeated in the Greco-Turkish War (1897). During the First Balkan War, after Greek troops had captured much of Greek Macedonia, George was assassinated in Thessaloniki.
    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  20. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    31 March 1921 – The Royal Australian Air Force is formed.

    Royal Australian Air Force

    The Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) is the principal aerial warfare force of Australia, a part of the Australian Defence Force (ADF) along with the Royal Australian Navy and the Australian Army.[4] Constitutionally the Governor-General of Australia is the de jure Commander-in-Chief of the Australian Defence Force. The Royal Australian Air Force is commanded by the Chief of Air Force (CAF), who is subordinate to the Chief of the Defence Force (CDF). The CAF is also directly responsible to the Minister for Defence, with the Department of Defence administering the ADF and the Air Force.[5]

    Formed in March 1921, as the Australian Air Force, through the separation of the Australian Air Corps from the Army in January 1920, which in turn amalgamated the separate aerial services of both the Army and Navy. It directly continues the traditions of the Australian Flying Corps (AFC), the aviation corps of the Army that fought in the First World War and that was formed on 22 October 1912.[6]

    During its history, the Royal Australian Air Force has fought in a number of major wars, including the Second World War in Europe and the Pacific, participated in the Berlin Airlift, Korean War, Malayan Emergency, Indonesia–Malaysia Confrontation, Vietnam War, and more recently, operations in East Timor, the Iraq War and subsequent intervention, and the War in Afghanistan.

    The RAAF operates the majority of the ADF's fixed wing aircraft, although both the Australian Army and Royal Australian Navy also operate aircraft in various roles.[7][8] The RAAF provides support across a spectrum of operations such as air superiority, precision strikes, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance, air mobility, space surveillance, and humanitarian support. The RAAF has 252 aircraft, of which 84 are combat aircraft.

    1. ^ "Air Force 2021 centenary". RAAF. Retrieved 28 March 2021.
    2. ^ "Defence Annual Reports". Department of Defence (Australia). Retrieved 26 January 2022.
    3. ^ "Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act – Section 68: Command of naval and military forces". Austlii. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
    4. ^ "Vision". Royal Australian Air Force. 3 November 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2021.
    5. ^ "Defence Act (1903) – SECT 9 Command of Defence Force and arms of Defence Force". Australasian Legal Information Institute. Retrieved 19 October 2010.
    6. ^ "Australian Military Aviation and World War One". Royal Australian Air Force. Archived from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
    7. ^ "Current aircraft". Royal Australian Navy. Archived from the original on 27 April 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
    8. ^ "Aviation projects". Australian Army. Archived from the original on 10 April 2018. Retrieved 27 April 2018.
     
  21. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    1 April 1867Singapore becomes a British crown colony.

    Crown colony

    Coat of arms of King James I. In 1624, the Crown revoked the royal charter earlier granted to the Virginia Company, and assumed direct government of the colony

    A Crown colony or royal colony was a colony governed by England, and then Great Britain or the United Kingdom within the English and later British Empire. There was usually a governor to represent the Crown, appointed by the British monarch on the advice of the UK Government, with or without the assistance of a local council. In some cases, this council was split into two: an executive council and a legislative council, and the executive council was similar to the Privy Council that advises the monarch. Members of executive councils were appointed by the governors, and British citizens resident in Crown colonies either had no representation in local government, or limited representation in a lower house. In several Crown colonies, this limited representation grew over time. As the House of Commons of the British Parliament has never included seats for any of the colonies, there was no direct representation in the sovereign government for British subjects or citizens residing in Crown colonies.

    The administration of Crown colonies changed over time and in the 1800s some became, with a loosening of the power of royal governors, self-governing colonies, within which the sovereign state (the UK Government) delegated legislation for most local internal matters of governance to elected assemblies, with consent of the governor. Elected lower houses had their beginnings in the House of Burgesses of the Colony of Virginia in 1619 and the House of Assembly of the Parliament of Bermuda in 1620. While initially limited in government even with an elected lower house, over the centuries in some Crown colonies, more independent authority was given.

    All remaining British colonies, whether Crown (such as the Falkland Islands) or self-governing (such as Bermuda), were renamed "British Dependent Territories" from 1 January 1983 under the British Nationality Act 1981. Many British citizens in the colonies (with the exceptions of the Falkland Islanders and subsequently the Gibraltarians) found that their "Citizenship of the United Kingdom and Colonies" had changed overnight to British Dependent Territories Citizenship, a form of British citizenship that stripped them of some of their rights, including the right to reside and work in the United Kingdom.[clarification needed] From 2002, the dependent territories have been known officially as British Overseas Territories.[1]

    1. ^ "British Overseas Territories Act 2002". Gov.Uk. Archived from the original on 30 January 2016. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
     
  22. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    2 April 1982Falklands War: Argentina invades the Falkland Islands.

    1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands

    The Invasion of the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Invasión de las Islas Malvinas), code-named Operation Rosario (Operación Rosario), was a military operation launched by Argentine forces on 2 April 1982, to capture the Falkland Islands, and served as a catalyst for the subsequent Falklands War. The Argentines mounted amphibious landings and the invasion ended with the surrender of Falkland Government House.

     
  23. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    3 April 1968Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his "I've Been to the Mountaintop" speech. He was assassinated the next day.

    I've Been to the Mountaintop

    The plaque outside the site of the speech, Mason Temple in Memphis, Tennessee

    "I've Been to the Mountaintop" is the popular name of the last speech delivered by Martin Luther King Jr.[1][2][3]

    King spoke on April 3, 1968,[4] at the Mason Temple (Church of God in Christ Headquarters) in Memphis, Tennessee.

    The speech primarily concerns the Memphis sanitation strike. King calls for unity, economic actions, boycotts, and nonviolent protest, while challenging the United States to live up to its ideals. At the end of the speech, he discusses the possibility of an untimely death.

    1. ^ Martin Luther King Jr. (April 3, 1968). "I've Been to the Mountaintop" (Transcript). American Rhetoric.
    2. ^ "I've Been to the Mountaintop." Memphis, Tennessee - April 3, 1968. Speech by Martin Luther King Jr. Info and transcript. Say It Plain. A Century of Great African American Speeches. By American RadioWorks.
    3. ^ Martin Luther King Jr.: "I've Been to the Mountaintop", delivered 3 April 1968, Memphis, Tennessee at Stanford University, including transcript of audience responses.
    4. ^ Daina Ramey Berry (March 27, 2018). "Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Final Speech". History.com. Archived from the original on August 15, 2020. Retrieved January 24, 2021.
     
  24. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    4 April 1968 – Apollo program: NASA launches Apollo 6.

    Apollo 6

    Apollo 6 (April 4, 1968), also known as AS-502, was the third and final uncrewed flight in the United States' Apollo Program and the second test of the Saturn V launch vehicle. It qualified the Saturn V for use on crewed missions, and it was used beginning with Apollo 8 in December 1968.

    Apollo 6 was intended to demonstrate the ability of the Saturn V's third stage, the S-IVB, to propel itself and the Apollo spacecraft to lunar distances. Its components began arriving at the Kennedy Space Center in early 1967. Testing proceeded slowly, often delayed by testing of the Saturn V intended for Apollo 4—the inaugural launch of the Saturn V. After that uncrewed mission launched in November 1967, there were fewer delays, but enough so that the flight was postponed from March to April 1968.

    The flight plan called for following trans-lunar injection with a direct return abort using the service module's main engine, with a flight time totaling about 10 hours. Instead, vibrations damaged some of the Rocketdyne J-2 engines in the second and third stages by rupturing internal fuel lines causing a second-stage engine to shut down early. An additional second-stage engine shut down early due to cross wiring with the other shutdown engine. The vehicle's onboard guidance system compensated by burning the second and third stages longer, although the resulting parking orbit was more elliptical than planned. The damaged third-stage engine failed to restart for trans-lunar injection. Flight controllers elected to repeat the flight profile of the previous Apollo 4 test, achieving a high orbit and high-speed return. Despite the engine failures, the flight provided NASA with enough confidence to use the Saturn V for crewed launches; a potential third uncrewed flight was cancelled.

     
  25. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    5 April 1879Chile declares war on Bolivia and Peru, starting the War of the Pacific.

    War of the Pacific

    The War of the Pacific (Spanish: Guerra del Pacífico), also known as the Nitrate War (Spanish: Guerra del salitre) and by multiple other names, was a war between Chile and a Bolivian–Peruvian alliance from 1879 to 1884. Fought over Chilean claims on coastal Bolivian territory in the Atacama Desert, the war ended with victory for Chile, which gained a significant amount of resource-rich territory from Peru and Bolivia.

    The primary cause of the war was a nitrate taxation dispute between Bolivia and Chile, with Peru being drawn in due to its secret alliance with Bolivia. Some historians have pointed to deeper origins of the war, such as the interest of Chile and Peru in the nitrate business, a long-standing rivalry between Chile and Peru for regional hegemony, as well as the political and economical disparities between the stability of Chile and the volatility of Peru and Bolivia.[A] On February 1878, Bolivia increased taxes on the Chilean mining company Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarril de Antofagasta (CSFA), in violation of the Boundary Treaty of 1874 which established the border between both countries and prohibited tax increases for mining. Chile protested the violation of the treaty and requested international arbitration, but the Bolivian government, presided by Hilarión Daza, considered this to be an internal issue subject to the jurisdiction of the Bolivian courts. Chile insisted that breaking the treaty would mean no longer being tied to the territorial borders denoted in it. Despite this, Hilarión Daza rescinded the license of the Chilean company, seized its assets and put them up for auction. On the day of the auction, February 14, 1879, Chile's armed forces occupied the Bolivian port city of Antofagasta without resistance, being mostly inhabited by Chilean miners. War was then declared between Bolivia and Chile on March 1, 1879, and between Chile and Peru on April 5, 1879.

    Battles were fought on the Pacific Ocean, the Atacama Desert, the Peruvian deserts, and the mountainous interior of Peru. For the first five months, the war played out in a naval campaign, as Chile struggled to establish a marine resupply corridor for its forces in the world's driest desert. Afterwards, Chile's land campaign overcame the Bolivian and Peruvian armies. Bolivia withdrew after the Battle of Tacna, on May 26, 1880, leaving allied Peru fighting alone for most of the war. Chilean forces occupied Peru's capital Lima in January 1881. Remnants and irregulars of the Peruvian army waged a guerrilla war but could not prevent war-weary Peruvian factions from reaching a peace deal with Chile involving territorial cessions.

    Chile and Peru signed the Treaty of Ancón on October 20, 1883. Bolivia signed a truce with Chile in 1884. Chile acquired the Peruvian territory of Tarapacá, the disputed Bolivian department of Litoral (turning Bolivia into a landlocked country), and temporary control over the Peruvian provinces of Tacna and Arica. In 1904, Chile and Bolivia signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, which established definite boundaries. The 1929 Tacna–Arica compromise gave Arica to Chile and Tacna to Peru.

    1. ^ Sater 2007, p. 51 Table 2
    2. ^ Sater 2007, p. 45 Table 1
    3. ^ a b c d Sater 2007, pp. 113–4 Table 6
    4. ^ Sater 2007, p. 274
    5. ^ Sater 2007, p. 58 Table 3
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference sater2007_263 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ a b Sater 2007, p. 349 Table 23.
    8. ^ a b Sater 2007, p. 348 Table 22. The statistics on battlefield deaths are inaccurate because they do not provide follow-up information on those who later died of their wounds.
    9. ^ St. John, Ronald Bruce; Schofield, Clive (1994). The Bolivia–Chile–Peru Dispute in the Atacama Desert. University of Durham, International Boundaries Research Unit. pp. 12–13. ISBN 1897643144.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=upper-alpha> tags or {{efn-ua}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=upper-alpha}} template or {{notelist-ua}} template (see the help page).

     
  26. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    6 April 1973 – Launch of Pioneer 11 spacecraft.

    Pioneer 11

    Pioneer 11 (also known as Pioneer G) is a NASA robotic space probe launched on April 5, 1973, to study the asteroid belt, the environment around Jupiter and Saturn, solar winds, and cosmic rays.[2] It was the first probe to encounter Saturn, the second to fly through the asteroid belt, and the second to fly by Jupiter. Later, Pioneer 11 became the second of five artificial objects to achieve an escape velocity allowing it to leave the Solar System. Due to power constraints and the vast distance to the probe, the last routine contact with the spacecraft was on September 30, 1995, and the last good engineering data was received on November 24, 1995.[3][4]

    1. ^ a b "Pioneer 11". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Retrieved December 1, 2022.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference PionOdys was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ "The Pioneer Missions". Nasa.gov. March 3, 2015.
    4. ^ "Pioneer 11: In Depth". Retrieved December 10, 2017.
     
  27. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    7 April 1906Mount Vesuvius erupts and devastates Naples.

    Mount Vesuvius

    Mount Vesuvius (/vɪˈsviəs/ viss-OO-vee-əs)[a] is a somma-stratovolcano located on the Gulf of Naples in Campania, Italy, about 9 km (5.6 mi) east of Naples and a short distance from the shore. It is one of several volcanoes forming the Campanian volcanic arc. Vesuvius consists of a large cone partially encircled by the steep rim of a summit caldera, resulting from the collapse of an earlier, much higher structure.

    The eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD destroyed the Roman cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplontis, Stabiae, and several other settlements. The eruption ejected a cloud of stones, ashes and volcanic gases to a height of 33 km (21 mi), erupting molten rock and pulverized pumice at the rate of 6×105 cubic metres (7.8×105 cu yd) per second.[5] More than 1,000 people are thought to have died in the eruption, though the exact toll is unknown. The only surviving eyewitness account of the event consists of two letters by Pliny the Younger to the historian Tacitus.[6]

    Vesuvius has erupted many times since. It is the only volcano on Europe's mainland to have erupted in the last hundred years. It is regarded as one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world because 3,000,000 people live near enough to be affected by an eruption, with at least 600,000 in the danger zone. This is the most densely populated volcanic region in the world. Eruptions tend to be violent and explosive; these are known as Plinian eruptions.[7]

    1. ^ "Vesuvio nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 7 February 2021.
    2. ^ Grasso, Alfonso, ed. (2007). "Il Vesuvio" [Vesuvius]. ilportaledelsud.org (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2021.
    3. ^ Castiglioni, Luigi; Mariotti, Scevola (2007). Vocabolario della lingua latina : IL : latino-italiano, italiano-latino / Luigi Castiglioni, Scevola Mariotti ; redatto con la collaborazione di Arturo Brambilla e Gaspare Campagna (in Italian) (4th ed.). Loescher. p. 1505. ISBN 978-8820166601.
    4. ^ "Vesuvio o Vesevius nell'Enciclopedia Treccani". www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 8 February 2021.
    5. ^ Woods, Andrew W. (2013). "Sustained explosive activity: volcanic eruption columns and hawaiian fountains". In Fagents, Sarah A.; Gregg, Tracy K. P.; Lopes, Rosaly M. C. (eds.). Modeling Volcanic Processes: The Physics and Mathematics of Volcanism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 158. ISBN 978-0521895439.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference epistularum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ McGuire, Bill (16 October 2003). "In the shadow of the volcano". The Guardian. Retrieved 8 May 2010.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  28. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    8 April 1964 – The Gemini 1 test flight is conducted.

    Gemini 1

    Gemini 1 was the first mission in NASA's Gemini program.[2] An uncrewed test flight of the Gemini spacecraft, its main objectives were to test the structural integrity of the new spacecraft and modified Titan II launch vehicle. It was also the first test of the new tracking and communication systems for the Gemini program and provided training for the ground support crews for the first crewed missions.[3]

    Originally scheduled for launch in December 1963, difficulties in the development of both the spacecraft and its booster caused four months of delay. Gemini 1 was launched from Launch Complex 19 at Cape Kennedy (now Canaveral), Florida on April 8, 1964. The spacecraft stayed attached to the second stage of the rocket. The mission lasted for three orbits while test data were taken, but the spacecraft stayed in space for almost 64 orbits until its orbit decayed due to atmospheric drag. The spacecraft was not intended to be recovered, and holes were drilled through its heat shield to ensure it would not survive re-entry.

    1. ^ McDowell, Jonathan. "SATCAT". Jonathan's Space Pages. Retrieved March 23, 2014.
    2. ^ "Gemini 1". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved June 28, 2018.
    3. ^ "Gemini 1". Gunter's Space Page. December 11, 2017. Retrieved October 15, 2012.
     
  29. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    9 April 1413Henry V is crowned King of England.

    Henry V of England

    Henry V (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422), also called Henry of Monmouth, was King of England from 1413 until his death in 1422. Despite his relatively short reign, Henry's outstanding military successes in the Hundred Years' War against France made England one of the strongest military powers in Europe.[1] Immortalised in Shakespeare's "Henriad" plays, Henry is known and celebrated as one of the greatest warrior-kings of medieval England.

    During the reign of his father Henry IV, Henry gained military experience fighting the Welsh during the revolt of Owain Glyndŵr and against the powerful aristocratic Percy family of Northumberland at the Battle of Shrewsbury. Henry acquired an increased role in England's government due to the king's declining health, but disagreements between father and son led to political conflict between the two. After his father's death in 1413, Henry assumed control of the country and asserted the pending English claim to the French throne.

    In 1415, Henry embarked on war with France. His first military campaign included his famous victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. By 1420, his armies had captured Paris and had come close to conquering the whole of medieval France. Taking advantage of political divisions within France, he conquered large portions of Northern France, resulting in Normandy's occupation by the English for the first time since the mid-14th century. After months of negotiation with Charles VI of France, the 1420 Treaty of Troyes recognised Henry V as regent and heir apparent to the French throne, and he was subsequently married to Charles's daughter Catherine of Valois. Everything seemed to point to the formation of a union between the kingdoms, in the person of Henry. However, he died two years later and was succeeded by his only child, the infant Henry VI.

    Analyses of Henry's reign are varied. According to Ross, he was widely praised for his personal piety, bravery, and military genius even by contemporary French chroniclers, but his occasionally cruel temperament and lack of focus on domestic affairs have made him the subject of some criticism.[2] Nonetheless, Adrian Hastings believes his militaristic pursuits during the Hundred Years' War fostered a strong sense of English nationalism and set the stage for the rise of England and then later Britain to prominence as a dominant global power.[3]

    1. ^ Ross, C. (28 July 1999). "Henry V, king of England". Encyclopædia Britannica.
    2. ^ Ross 1999.
    3. ^ Hastings, Adrian (1997). The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN 9780521625449.
     
  30. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    10 April 1872 – The first Arbor Day is celebrated in Nebraska.

    Arbor Day

    Arbor Day (or Arbour Day in some countries) is a secular day of observance in which individuals and groups are encouraged to plant trees.[1] Today, many countries observe such a holiday. Though usually observed in the spring, the date varies, depending on climate and suitable planting season.

    1. ^ Jones, David (2010). "'Plant trees': the foundations of Arbor Day in Australia". Studies in the History of Gardens & Designed Landscapes. 30 (1): 77–93. doi:10.1080/14601170903010200. S2CID 161904923.
     
  31. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 April 1909 – The city of Tel Aviv is founded.

    Tel Aviv

    Tel Aviv-Yafo (Hebrew: תֵּל אָבִיב-יָפוֹ, romanizedTēl ʾĀvīv-Yāfō, IPA: [tel aˈviv jaˈfo]; Arabic: تَلّ أَبِيب – يَافَا, romanizedTall ʾAbīb-Yāfā), usually referred to as just Tel Aviv, is the most populous city in the Gush Dan metropolitan area of Israel. Located on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline and with a population of 467,875, it is the economic and technological center of the country. If East Jerusalem is considered part of Israel, Tel Aviv is the country's second-most-populous city, after Jerusalem; if not, Tel Aviv is the most populous city, ahead of West Jerusalem.[a]

    Tel Aviv is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, headed by Mayor Ron Huldai, and is home to most of Israel's foreign embassies.[b] It is a beta+ world city and is ranked 57th in the 2022 Global Financial Centres Index. Tel Aviv has the third- or fourth-largest economy and the largest economy per capita in the Middle East.[11][12] The city currently has the highest cost of living in the world.[13][14] Tel Aviv receives over 2.5 million international visitors annually.[15][16] A "party capital" in the Middle East, it has a lively nightlife and 24-hour culture.[17][18] The city is gay-friendly, with a large LGBT community.[19] Tel Aviv is home to Tel Aviv University, the largest university in the country with more than 30,000 students.

    The city was founded in 1909 by the Yishuv (Jewish residents) and initially given the Hebrew name Ahuzat Bayit (Hebrew: אחוזת בית, romanizedʔAħuzat Bayit, lit. 'House Estate' or 'Homestead'),[20][21] namesake of the Jewish association which established the neighbourhood as a modern housing estate on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa (Yafo in Hebrew), then part of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem within the Ottoman Empire. Its name was changed the following year to Tel Aviv, after the biblical name Tel Abib (lit. "Tell of Spring") adopted by Nahum Sokolow as the title for his Hebrew translation of Theodor Herzl's 1902 novel Altneuland ("Old New Land"). Other Jewish suburbs of Jaffa had been established before Tel Aviv, the oldest among them being Neve Tzedek.[22] Tel Aviv was given township status within the Jaffa Municipality in 1921, and became independent from Jaffa in 1934.[23][24] Immigration by mostly Jewish refugees meant that the growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced that of Jaffa, which had a majority Arab population at the time.[25] In 1948 the Israeli Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in the city. After the 1947–1949 Palestine war, Tel Aviv began the municipal annexation of parts of Jaffa, fully unified with Jaffa under the name Tel Aviv in April 1950, and was formally renamed to Tel Aviv-Yafo in August 1950.[26]

    Tel Aviv's White City, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, comprises the world's largest concentration of International Style buildings, including Bauhaus and other related modernist architectural styles.[27][28] Popular attractions include Jaffa Old City, the Eretz Israel Museum, the Museum of Art, Hayarkon Park, and the city's promenade and beach.

    1. ^ Ezekiel 3:15
    2. ^ "Regional Statistics". Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
    3. ^ Azaryahu, Maoz (2007). Tel Aviv: Mythography of a City. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. pp. 133–134. ISBN 978-0-8156-3129-3.
    4. ^ Mann, Barbara E. (2006). A Place in History: Modernism, Tel Aviv, and the Creation of Jewish Urban Space. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 148, 166. ISBN 978-0-8047-5019-6.
    5. ^ The Cities Book: A Journey Through the Best Cities in the World. Melbourne, Oakland and London: Lonely Planet. 2009. pp. 380–381. ISBN 978-1-74179-887-6.
    6. ^ "Instead of talking about national economy, we should talk about cities". www.calcalist.co.il. Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
    7. ^ "World Economic Outlook database: October 2023". www.imf.org. Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
    8. ^ Korach, Michal; Choshen, Maya. Jerusalem Facts and Trends 2019 (PDF). Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research. p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
    9. ^ "Map of Israel" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2017. (319 KB)
    10. ^ "Israel". CIA World Factbook. 21 June 2022. Archived from the original on 13 September 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
    11. ^ "Global Financial Centres Index #23" (PDF). longfinance.net. 22 August 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2022. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
    12. ^ "Global city GDP 2014". Brookings Institution. 22 January 2015. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
    13. ^ "Tel Aviv named as world's most expensive city to live in". BBC. 1 December 2021. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
    14. ^ McKeever, Vicky (1 December 2021). "This is now the world's most expensive city to live in, study says". CNBC. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
    15. ^ Goldman, Yoel (12 June 2012). "MasterCard ranks Tel Aviv as fifth most visited city in Middle East and Africa". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 15 June 2012. Retrieved 12 June 2012.
    16. ^ Sapty, Tanya (19 July 2011). "Tourists rank Jerusalem and Tel Aviv among top cities to visit". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 12 November 2011.
    17. ^ "The world's top 10 party towns". The Sydney Morning Herald. 19 November 2009. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
    18. ^ "Lonely Planet's top 10 cities for 2011". Archived from the original on 3 November 2010. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Burden was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ "Today in history: Founding of Tel Aviv – Christian News – Jerusalem Post". The Jerusalem Post. 11 April 2016. Archived from the original on 14 November 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
    21. ^ Dvir, Noam (Dabul) (27 July 2015). "The promised landfill: 106 years of garbage in Tel Aviv". Ynetnews. Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
    22. ^ Elkayam, Mordechai (1990). Yafo – Neve-Tzedek, Rashita shel Tel-Aviv (in Hebrew). Ministry of Defence. p. 199.
    23. ^ Goren, Tamir (2016). "Tel Aviv and the question of separation from Jaffa 1921–1936". Middle Eastern Studies. 52 (3): 473–487. doi:10.1080/00263206.2015.1125340. S2CID 147012425.
      Page 1: "Once Tel Aviv had won municipal status (the so-called Tel Aviv Township) in 1921, it strove to amend the relevant legislation by rescission of the clauses that placed it under Jaffa municipality's supervision. In the succeeding years, this question became increasingly to the fore, and demanded a speedy solution. Together with the Tel Aviv's ambition of independence as a Hebrew city with its own autonomous Hebrew government, some members of the township's council did not favour separation from the mother city Jaffa. In the mid-1920s, the view consoli- dated among the town councillors that Tel Aviv's subjection to Jaffa municipality had to be annulled, and it must be granted its deserved status as an independent Hebrew city."
      Page 3: "Tel Aviv municipality strove for full municipal rights, for the status of a municipality with all its implications, in this way enjoying absolute independence. Yet it still wished to maintain its interests in Jaffa. Most obvious was the desire not to lose the Jewish influence in the Jaffa municipality, as well as reinforcing the clout of the Jews on the municipal council. In Tel Aviv's view, Jaffa enjoyed important status not only locally. At that time it was second in importance in Palestine only to Jerusalem, and was followed by Haifa, Safed and Tiberias."
      Page 4: "...the Mandate government took a positive view of Tel Aviv's desire for full municipal independence. But at that stage it refrained from making any changes at all in Tel Aviv's municipal status. From the closing years of the 1920s, the authorities immersed themselves in the preparation of a new framework for the Municipalities Law, which was intended to replace the Ottoman law. So as long as the new law was incomplete, the authorities avoided any change in the municipal status of Tel Aviv. [Footnote: The new Municipalities Order was published in 1934. That year Tel Aviv gained full municipal independence, becoming a municipal corporation.]"
    24. ^ M. Gorion (Wager), Introduction to the History of Local Government in Israel (Jerusalem: University of Tel Aviv, 1957), pp.184–5 [Hebrew].
    25. ^ 85% in 1922, 92% in 1931 (Census reports)
    26. ^ Cite error: The named reference Golan1995 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    27. ^ "The White City of Tel Aviv" (PDF). UNESCO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2008. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
    28. ^ Strimpel, Zoe (16 February 2008). "Hip and happening in Tel Aviv". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  32. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    11 April 1909 – The city of Tel Aviv is founded.

    Tel Aviv

    Tel Aviv-Yafo (Hebrew: תֵּל אָבִיב-יָפוֹ, romanizedTēl ʾĀvīv-Yāfō, IPA: [tel aˈviv jaˈfo]; Arabic: تَلّ أَبِيب – يَافَا, romanizedTall ʾAbīb-Yāfā), usually referred to as just Tel Aviv, is the most populous city in the Gush Dan metropolitan area of Israel. Located on the Israeli Mediterranean coastline and with a population of 467,875, it is the economic and technological center of the country. If East Jerusalem is considered part of Israel, Tel Aviv is the country's second-most-populous city, after Jerusalem; if not, Tel Aviv is the most populous city, ahead of West Jerusalem.[a]

    Tel Aviv is governed by the Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality, headed by Mayor Ron Huldai, and is home to most of Israel's foreign embassies.[b] It is a beta+ world city and is ranked 57th in the 2022 Global Financial Centres Index. Tel Aviv has the third- or fourth-largest economy and the largest economy per capita in the Middle East.[11][12] The city currently has the highest cost of living in the world.[13][14] Tel Aviv receives over 2.5 million international visitors annually.[15][16] A "party capital" in the Middle East, it has a lively nightlife and 24-hour culture.[17][18] The city is gay-friendly, with a large LGBT community.[19] Tel Aviv is home to Tel Aviv University, the largest university in the country with more than 30,000 students.

    The city was founded in 1909 by the Yishuv (Jewish residents) and initially given the Hebrew name Ahuzat Bayit (Hebrew: אחוזת בית, romanizedʔAħuzat Bayit, lit. 'House Estate' or 'Homestead'),[20][21] namesake of the Jewish association which established the neighbourhood as a modern housing estate on the outskirts of the ancient port city of Jaffa (Yafo in Hebrew), then part of the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem within the Ottoman Empire. Its name was changed the following year to Tel Aviv, after the biblical name Tel Abib (lit. "Tell of Spring") adopted by Nahum Sokolow as the title for his Hebrew translation of Theodor Herzl's 1902 novel Altneuland ("Old New Land"). Other Jewish suburbs of Jaffa had been established before Tel Aviv, the oldest among them being Neve Tzedek.[22] Tel Aviv was given township status within the Jaffa Municipality in 1921, and became independent from Jaffa in 1934.[23][24] Immigration by mostly Jewish refugees meant that the growth of Tel Aviv soon outpaced that of Jaffa, which had a majority Arab population at the time.[25] In 1948 the Israeli Declaration of Independence was proclaimed in the city. After the 1947–1949 Palestine war, Tel Aviv began the municipal annexation of parts of Jaffa, fully unified with Jaffa under the name Tel Aviv in April 1950, and was formally renamed to Tel Aviv-Yafo in August 1950.[26]

    Tel Aviv's White City, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2003, comprises the world's largest concentration of International Style buildings, including Bauhaus and other related modernist architectural styles.[27][28] Popular attractions include Jaffa Old City, the Eretz Israel Museum, the Museum of Art, Hayarkon Park, and the city's promenade and beach.

    1. ^ Ezekiel 3:15
    2. ^ "Regional Statistics". Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 22 February 2023.
    3. ^ Azaryahu, Maoz (2007). Tel Aviv: Mythography of a City. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press. pp. 133–134. ISBN 978-0-8156-3129-3.
    4. ^ Mann, Barbara E. (2006). A Place in History: Modernism, Tel Aviv, and the Creation of Jewish Urban Space. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 148, 166. ISBN 978-0-8047-5019-6.
    5. ^ The Cities Book: A Journey Through the Best Cities in the World. Melbourne, Oakland and London: Lonely Planet. 2009. pp. 380–381. ISBN 978-1-74179-887-6.
    6. ^ "Instead of talking about national economy, we should talk about cities". www.calcalist.co.il. Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
    7. ^ "World Economic Outlook database: October 2023". www.imf.org. Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 12 November 2023.
    8. ^ Korach, Michal; Choshen, Maya. Jerusalem Facts and Trends 2019 (PDF). Jerusalem Institute for Policy Research. p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 July 2019. Retrieved 8 July 2019.
    9. ^ "Map of Israel" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 June 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2017. (319 KB)
    10. ^ "Israel". CIA World Factbook. 21 June 2022. Archived from the original on 13 September 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
    11. ^ "Global Financial Centres Index #23" (PDF). longfinance.net. 22 August 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2022. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
    12. ^ "Global city GDP 2014". Brookings Institution. 22 January 2015. Archived from the original on 7 January 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2015.
    13. ^ "Tel Aviv named as world's most expensive city to live in". BBC. 1 December 2021. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
    14. ^ McKeever, Vicky (1 December 2021). "This is now the world's most expensive city to live in, study says". CNBC. Archived from the original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2022.
    15. ^ Goldman, Yoel (12 June 2012). "MasterCard ranks Tel Aviv as fifth most visited city in Middle East and Africa". The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 15 June 2012. Retrieved 12 June 2012.
    16. ^ Sapty, Tanya (19 July 2011). "Tourists rank Jerusalem and Tel Aviv among top cities to visit". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 12 November 2011.
    17. ^ "The world's top 10 party towns". The Sydney Morning Herald. 19 November 2009. Archived from the original on 10 April 2010. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
    18. ^ "Lonely Planet's top 10 cities for 2011". Archived from the original on 3 November 2010. Retrieved 31 October 2010.
    19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Burden was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    20. ^ "Today in history: Founding of Tel Aviv – Christian News – Jerusalem Post". The Jerusalem Post. 11 April 2016. Archived from the original on 14 November 2018. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
    21. ^ Dvir, Noam (Dabul) (27 July 2015). "The promised landfill: 106 years of garbage in Tel Aviv". Ynetnews. Archived from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
    22. ^ Elkayam, Mordechai (1990). Yafo – Neve-Tzedek, Rashita shel Tel-Aviv (in Hebrew). Ministry of Defence. p. 199.
    23. ^ Goren, Tamir (2016). "Tel Aviv and the question of separation from Jaffa 1921–1936". Middle Eastern Studies. 52 (3): 473–487. doi:10.1080/00263206.2015.1125340. S2CID 147012425.
      Page 1: "Once Tel Aviv had won municipal status (the so-called Tel Aviv Township) in 1921, it strove to amend the relevant legislation by rescission of the clauses that placed it under Jaffa municipality's supervision. In the succeeding years, this question became increasingly to the fore, and demanded a speedy solution. Together with the Tel Aviv's ambition of independence as a Hebrew city with its own autonomous Hebrew government, some members of the township's council did not favour separation from the mother city Jaffa. In the mid-1920s, the view consoli- dated among the town councillors that Tel Aviv's subjection to Jaffa municipality had to be annulled, and it must be granted its deserved status as an independent Hebrew city."
      Page 3: "Tel Aviv municipality strove for full municipal rights, for the status of a municipality with all its implications, in this way enjoying absolute independence. Yet it still wished to maintain its interests in Jaffa. Most obvious was the desire not to lose the Jewish influence in the Jaffa municipality, as well as reinforcing the clout of the Jews on the municipal council. In Tel Aviv's view, Jaffa enjoyed important status not only locally. At that time it was second in importance in Palestine only to Jerusalem, and was followed by Haifa, Safed and Tiberias."
      Page 4: "...the Mandate government took a positive view of Tel Aviv's desire for full municipal independence. But at that stage it refrained from making any changes at all in Tel Aviv's municipal status. From the closing years of the 1920s, the authorities immersed themselves in the preparation of a new framework for the Municipalities Law, which was intended to replace the Ottoman law. So as long as the new law was incomplete, the authorities avoided any change in the municipal status of Tel Aviv. [Footnote: The new Municipalities Order was published in 1934. That year Tel Aviv gained full municipal independence, becoming a municipal corporation.]"
    24. ^ M. Gorion (Wager), Introduction to the History of Local Government in Israel (Jerusalem: University of Tel Aviv, 1957), pp.184–5 [Hebrew].
    25. ^ 85% in 1922, 92% in 1931 (Census reports)
    26. ^ Cite error: The named reference Golan1995 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    27. ^ "The White City of Tel Aviv" (PDF). UNESCO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 April 2008. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
    28. ^ Strimpel, Zoe (16 February 2008). "Hip and happening in Tel Aviv". The Times. London. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  33. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    12 April 1983Harold Washington is elected as the first black mayor of Chicago.

    Harold Washington

    Harold Lee Washington (April 15, 1922 – November 25, 1987) was an American lawyer and politician who was the 51st Mayor of Chicago.[1] Washington became the first African American to be elected as the city's mayor in April 1983. He served as mayor from April 29, 1983, until his death on November 25, 1987. Born in Chicago and raised in the Bronzeville neighborhood, Washington became involved in local 3rd Ward politics under Chicago Alderman and future Congressman Ralph Metcalfe after graduating from Roosevelt University and Northwestern University School of Law.[2][3] Washington was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from 1981 to 1983, representing Illinois's first district. Washington had previously served in the Illinois State Senate and the Illinois House of Representatives from 1965 until 1976.

    1. ^ "Chicago Mayors". Chicago Public Library. Retrieved March 24, 2019.
    2. ^ Black Chicago's First Century: 1833–1900, Volume 1; Volumes 1833–1900, By Christopher Robert Reed. Retrieved March 9, 2020.
    3. ^ Jet, Sep 6, 2004. Retrieved March 9, 2020.
     
  34. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    13 April 1997Tiger Woods becomes the youngest golfer to win the Masters Tournament.

    Tiger Woods

    Eldrick Tont "Tiger" Woods (born December 30, 1975) is an American professional golfer. He is tied for first in PGA Tour wins, ranks second in men's major championships, and holds numerous golf records.[4] Woods is widely regarded as one of the greatest golfers of all time and is one of the most famous athletes in modern history.[4] He is an inductee of the World Golf Hall of Fame.[5]

    Following an outstanding junior, college, and amateur golf career, Woods turned professional in 1996 at the age of 20. By the end of April 1997, he had won three PGA Tour events in addition to his first major, the 1997 Masters, which he won by 12 strokes in a record-breaking performance. He reached number one in the Official World Golf Ranking for the first time in June 1997, less than a year after turning pro. Throughout the first decade of the 21st century, Woods was the dominant force in golf. He was the top-ranked golfer in the world from August 1999 to September 2004 (264 consecutive weeks) and again from June 2005 to October 2010 (281 consecutive weeks). During this time, he won 13 of golf's major championships.

    The next decade of Woods's career was marked by comebacks from personal problems and injuries. He took a self-imposed hiatus from professional golf from December 2009 to early April 2010 in an attempt to resolve marital issues with his wife at the time, Elin. Woods admitted to multiple marital infidelities, and the couple eventually divorced.[6] He fell to number 58 in the world rankings in November 2011 before ascending again to the number-one ranking between March 2013 and May 2014.[7][8] However, injuries led him to undergo four back surgeries between 2014 and 2017.[9] Woods competed in only one tournament between August 2015 and January 2018, and he dropped off the list of the world's top 1,000 golfers.[10][11] On his return to regular competition, Woods made steady progress to the top of the game, winning his first tournament in five years at the Tour Championship in September 2018 and his first major in 11 years at the 2019 Masters.

    Woods has held numerous golf records. He has been the number one player in the world for the most consecutive weeks and for the greatest total number of weeks of any golfer in history. He has been awarded PGA Player of the Year a record 11 times[12] and has won the Byron Nelson Award for lowest adjusted scoring average a record eight times. Woods has the record of leading the money list in ten different seasons. He has won 15 professional major golf championships (trailing only Jack Nicklaus, who leads with 18) and 82 PGA Tour events (tied for first all time with Sam Snead).[13] Woods leads all active golfers in career major wins and career PGA Tour wins. Woods is the fifth (after Gene Sarazen, Ben Hogan, Gary Player and Jack Nicklaus) player to achieve the career Grand Slam, and the youngest to do so. He is also the second golfer out of two (after Nicklaus) to achieve a career Grand Slam three times.

    Woods has won 18 World Golf Championships. He was also part of the American winning team for the 1999 Ryder Cup. In May 2019, Woods was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Trump, the fourth golfer to receive the honor.[14]

    On February 23, 2021, Woods was hospitalized in serious but stable condition after a single-car collision and underwent emergency surgery to repair compound fractures sustained in his right leg in addition to a shattered ankle.[15] In an interview with Golf Digest in November 2021, Woods indicated that his full-time career as a professional golfer was over, although he would continue to play "a few events per year".[16] For the first time since the car crash, he returned to the PGA Tour at the 2022 Masters.

    1. ^ a b "Tiger Woods – Profile". PGA Tour. Archived from the original on September 10, 2017. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
    2. ^ "Week 24 1997 Ending 15 Jun 1997" (pdf). OWGR. Retrieved December 20, 2018.
    3. ^ 2009 European Tour Official Guide Section 4, p. 577 PDF 21. European Tour. Retrieved April 21, 2009. Archived January 26, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
    4. ^ a b
    5. ^ Harig, Bob (March 11, 2020). "Tiger Woods to be inducted into World Golf Hall of Fame in 2021". ESPN.
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference legend was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ "Westwood becomes world number one". BBC News. October 31, 2010.
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference chevron was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ "Complete list of Tiger Woods' injuries". PGA Tour. March 5, 2019.
    10. ^ DiMeglio, Steve (August 1, 2018). "With game on point, Tiger Woods is in perfect place to win again at Firestone". USA Today. Retrieved July 29, 2021.
    11. ^ Reid, Philip (August 14, 2018). "For the new Tiger Woods, second place is far from first loser". The Irish Times. Dublin.
    12. ^ Kelley, Brent (October 20, 2009). "Woods Clinches PGA Player of the Year Award". About.com: Golf. Archived from the original on June 11, 2011. Retrieved December 2, 2009.
    13. ^ "Tracking Tiger". NBC Sports. Archived from the original on June 3, 2009. Retrieved June 3, 2009.
    14. ^ Rogers, Katie (May 6, 2019). "'I've Battled,' Tiger Woods Says as He Accepts Presidential Medal of Freedom". The New York Times. Retrieved May 8, 2019.
    15. ^ Macaya, Melissa (February 23, 2021). "Tiger Woods injured in car crash". CNN. Retrieved July 30, 2021.
    16. ^ Rapaport, Dan (November 29, 2021). "Exclusive: Tiger Woods discusses golf future in first in-depth interview since car accident". Golf Digest. Retrieved November 30, 2021.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
  35. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    14 April 1828Noah Webster copyrights the first edition of his dictionary.

    Webster's Dictionary

    Webster's Dictionary is any of the English language dictionaries edited in the early 19th century by Noah Webster (1758–1843), an American lexicographer, as well as numerous related or unrelated dictionaries that have adopted the Webster's name in his honor. "Webster's" has since become a genericized trademark in the United States for English dictionaries, and is widely used in dictionary titles.[1]

    Merriam-Webster is the corporate heir to Noah Webster's original works, which are in the public domain.

    1. ^ "Merriam-Webster FAQ". Archived from the original on December 30, 2009. Retrieved January 24, 2008.
     
  36. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    15 April 1924Rand McNally publishes its first road atlas.

    Rand McNally

    Rand McNally is an American technology and publishing company that provides mapping, software and hardware for consumer electronics, commercial transportation and education markets. The company is headquartered in Chicago, with a distribution center in Richmond, Kentucky.

     
  37. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 April 2007Virginia Tech shooting: Seung-Hui Cho guns down 32 people and injures 17 before committing suicide.

    Virginia Tech shooting

    The Virginia Tech shooting was a spree shooting that occurred on Monday, April 16, 2007, comprising two attacks on the campus of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia, United States. Seung-Hui Cho, an undergraduate student at the university, killed 32 people and wounded 17 others with two semi-automatic pistols. Six others were injured jumping out of windows to escape Cho.

    The first shooting occurred at West Ambler Johnston Hall, a dormitory, where two people were killed; the main attack was a school shooting at Norris Hall, a classroom building, where Cho chained the main entrance doors shut and fired into four classrooms and in a stairwell, killing thirty more people. As police stormed Norris Hall, Cho fatally shot himself in the head. It was the deadliest mass shooting in modern U.S. history and remained so for nine years until the Orlando nightclub shooting. It remains the deadliest school shooting in U.S. history and the deadliest mass shooting in Virginia history.

    The attacks received international media coverage and provoked widespread criticism of U.S. gun culture.[9] It sparked debate about gun violence, gun laws, gaps in the U.S. system for treating mental health issues, Cho's state of mind, the responsibility of college administrations,[10] privacy laws, journalism ethics, and other issues. News organizations that aired portions of Cho's multimedia manifesto were criticized by victims' families, Virginia law enforcement officials, and the American Psychiatric Association.[11][12]

    Cho had previously been diagnosed with selective mutism and severe depression. During much of his middle school and high school years, he received therapy and special education support. After graduating from high school, Cho enrolled at Virginia Tech. Because of federal privacy laws, the university was unaware of Cho's previous diagnoses or the accommodations he had been granted at school. In 2005, Cho was accused of stalking two female students.[13] After an investigation, a Virginia special justice declared Cho mentally ill and ordered him to attend treatment. Because he was not institutionalized, he was allowed to purchase guns.[14] The shooting prompted the state of Virginia to close legal loopholes that had allowed individuals adjudicated as mentally unsound to purchase handguns without detection by the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS). It also led to the passage of the first major federal gun control measure in the U.S. since 1994. The law strengthening the NICS was signed by President George W. Bush on January 5, 2008.[15]

    Administrators at Virginia Tech were criticized by the Virginia Tech Review Panel, a state-appointed panel tasked with investigating the incident, for failing to take action that might have decreased the number of casualties.[16] The panel's report also reviewed gun laws and pointed out gaps in mental health care as well as privacy laws that left Cho's deteriorating condition untreated when he was a student at Virginia Tech.[17]: 78 [18]: 2 37°13′37″N 80°25′19″W / 37.227°N 80.422°W / 37.227; -80.422

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Norris was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.III was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Williams was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.X was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.VIII was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference NSCC1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Gibbons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Perry was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Spielman was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Maddox was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference APA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Stalking was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference Luo was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cochran was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ Urbina, Ian (August 30, 2007). "Virginia Tech Criticized for Actions in Shooting (Published 2007)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved December 4, 2020.
    17. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.VII was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.Sum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  38. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    16 April 2007Virginia Tech shooting: Seung-Hui Cho guns down 32 people and injures 17 before committing suicide.

    Virginia Tech shooting

    The Virginia Tech shooting was a spree shooting that occurred on Monday, April 16, 2007, comprising two attacks on the campus of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia, United States. Seung-Hui Cho, an undergraduate student at the university, killed 32 people and wounded 17 others with two semi-automatic pistols. Six others were injured jumping out of windows to escape Cho.

    The first shooting occurred at West Ambler Johnston Hall, a dormitory, where two people were killed; the main attack was a school shooting at Norris Hall, a classroom building, where Cho chained the main entrance doors shut and fired into four classrooms and in a stairwell, killing thirty more people. As police stormed Norris Hall, Cho fatally shot himself in the head. It was the deadliest mass shooting in modern U.S. history and remained so for nine years until the Orlando nightclub shooting. It remains the deadliest school shooting in U.S. history and the deadliest mass shooting in Virginia history.

    The attacks received international media coverage and provoked widespread criticism of U.S. gun culture.[9] It sparked debate about gun violence, gun laws, gaps in the U.S. system for treating mental health issues, Cho's state of mind, the responsibility of college administrations,[10] privacy laws, journalism ethics, and other issues. News organizations that aired portions of Cho's multimedia manifesto were criticized by victims' families, Virginia law enforcement officials, and the American Psychiatric Association.[11][12]

    Cho had previously been diagnosed with selective mutism and severe depression. During much of his middle school and high school years, he received therapy and special education support. After graduating from high school, Cho enrolled at Virginia Tech. Because of federal privacy laws, the university was unaware of Cho's previous diagnoses or the accommodations he had been granted at school. In 2005, Cho was accused of stalking two female students.[13] After an investigation, a Virginia special justice declared Cho mentally ill and ordered him to attend treatment. Because he was not institutionalized, he was allowed to purchase guns.[14] The shooting prompted the state of Virginia to close legal loopholes that had allowed individuals adjudicated as mentally unsound to purchase handguns without detection by the National Instant Criminal Background Check System (NICS). It also led to the passage of the first major federal gun control measure in the U.S. since 1994. The law strengthening the NICS was signed by President George W. Bush on January 5, 2008.[15]

    Administrators at Virginia Tech were criticized by the Virginia Tech Review Panel, a state-appointed panel tasked with investigating the incident, for failing to take action that might have decreased the number of casualties.[16] The panel's report also reviewed gun laws and pointed out gaps in mental health care as well as privacy laws that left Cho's deteriorating condition untreated when he was a student at Virginia Tech.[17]: 78 [18]: 2 37°13′37″N 80°25′19″W / 37.227°N 80.422°W / 37.227; -80.422

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference AJ was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Norris was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.III was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Williams was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.X was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.VIII was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    7. ^ Cite error: The named reference NSCC1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Gibbons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Perry was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Spielman was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Maddox was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference APA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Stalking was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference Luo was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cochran was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    16. ^ Urbina, Ian (August 30, 2007). "Virginia Tech Criticized for Actions in Shooting (Published 2007)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved December 4, 2020.
    17. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.VII was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    18. ^ Cite error: The named reference MR.Sum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
  39. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    17 April 1946 – The last French troops are withdrawn from Syria.

    Mandatory Syrian Republic

     
  40. Admin2

    Admin2 Administrator Staff Member

    18 April 1923Yankee Stadium: "The House that Ruth Built" opens.

    Yankee Stadium (1923)

    The original Yankee Stadium was located in the Bronx in New York City. It was the home of the New York Yankees from 1923 to 2008, except for 19741975 when it was renovated. It hosted 6,581 Yankees regular season home games during its 85-year history. It was also the home of the New York Giants National Football League (NFL) team from October 21, 1956 through September 23, 1973. The stadium's nickname is "The House That Ruth Built"[3] which is derived from Babe Ruth, the baseball superstar whose prime years coincided with the stadium's opening and the beginning of the Yankees' winning history.

    The stadium was built from 1922 to 1923 for $2.4 million ($43 million in 2023 dollars). Its construction was paid for entirely by Yankees owner Jacob Ruppert, who was eager to have his own stadium after sharing the Polo Grounds with the New York Giants baseball team the previous ten years. Yankee Stadium opened for the 1923 season and was hailed at the time as a unique facility in the country. Over the course of its history, it became one of the most famous venues in the United States, hosting a variety of events and historic moments during its existence. Many of these moments were baseball-related, including World Series games, no-hitters, perfect games, and historic home runs, but the stadium also hosted boxing matches, the 1958 NFL Championship Game, college football, concerts, and three Papal Masses. Its condition deteriorated in the 1960s and 1970s, prompting its closure for renovation from October 1973 through 1975. The renovation significantly altered the appearance of the venue and reduced the distance of the outfield fences.[4]

    In 2006, the Yankees began building a new $2.3 billion stadium in public parkland adjacent to the stadium, which included $1.2 billion in public subsidies.[5] The design includes a replica of the frieze along the roof that had been part of the original Yankee Stadium. Monument Park, a Hall of Fame for prominent former Yankees, was relocated to the new stadium. Yankee Stadium closed following the 2008 season and the new stadium opened in 2009, adopting the "Yankee Stadium" moniker. The original Yankee Stadium was demolished in 2010, two years after it closed, and the 8-acre (3.2 ha) site was converted into a public park called Heritage Field.[6]

    1. ^ "8/3/1958 JEHOVAH'S WITNESSES CONVENTION - LARGEST CROWD Old Yankee Stadium Historical Plaque, Ruppert Plaza, Bronx, New York City" (Photo). flickr. April 2013. Retrieved October 9, 2019.
    2. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
    3. ^ "Yankee Stadium History – New York Yankees". newyork.yankees.mlb.com. Archived from the original on June 29, 2008. Retrieved September 24, 2015.
    4. ^ "Call it Yankee Stadium - but just isn't same". Spokesman-Review. Spokane, Washington. Associated Press. March 7, 1976. p. D8.
    5. ^ Neil deMause (January 15, 2009). "PRIVATE/PUBLIC COST BREAKDOWN FOR NEW YANKEES/METS STADIUMS, BY NEIL DEMAUSE, FIELDOFSCHEMES.COM, LAST UPDATE JANUARY 2009" (PDF). Retrieved September 17, 2015.
    6. ^ "The Yankee Stadium Redevelopment Project". New York City Department of Parks & Recreation. Retrieved May 16, 2010.
     

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