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25 May 1977 – Star Wars is released in theaters.

Star Wars (film)

1977 film by George Lucas

This article is about the original 1977 film. For other films in the franchise, see List of Star Wars films. "A New Hope" redirects here. For other uses, see A New Hope (disambiguation).

Star Wars (later retitled Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope) is a 1977 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas, produced by Lucasfilm Ltd. and released by Twentieth Century-Fox. It is the first film in the Star Wars franchise and the fourth chronological chapter of the "Skywalker Saga". Set in a fictional galaxy under the rule of the tyrannical Galactic Empire, the film follows a group of freedom fighters known as the Rebel Alliance, who aim to destroy the Empire's ultimate weapon, the Death Star. When the rebel leader Princess Leia is captured by the Empire, Luke Skywalker acquires stolen architectural plans of the Death Star and sets out to rescue her while learning the ways of a metaphysical power known as "the Force" from the Jedi Master Obi-Wan Kenobi. The cast includes Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Peter Cushing, Alec Guinness, Anthony Daniels, Kenny Baker, Peter Mayhew, David Prowse, and James Earl Jones.

Lucas had the idea for a science fiction film in the vein of Flash Gordon around the time he completed his first film, THX 1138 (1971), and he began working on a treatment after the release of American Graffiti (1973). After numerous rewrites, filming took place throughout 1975 and 1976 in locations including Tunisia and Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire, England. Lucas formed the visual effects company Industrial Light & Magic to help create the film's visual effects. Star Wars suffered production difficulties: the cast and crew believed the film would be a failure, and it went $3 million over budget due to delays.

Few were confident in the film's box office prospects. It was released in a small number of theaters in the United States on May 25, 1977, and quickly became a surprise blockbuster hit, leading to it being expanded to a much wider release. Star Wars opened to positive reviews, with praise for its special effects. It grossed $410 million worldwide during its initial run, surpassing Jaws (1975) to become the highest-grossing film until the release of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982); subsequent releases have brought its total gross to $775 million. When adjusted for inflation, Star Wars is the second-highest-grossing film in North America (behind Gone with the Wind) and the fourth-highest-grossing film of all time. It received Academy Awards, BAFTA Awards, and Saturn Awards, among others. The film has been reissued many times with Lucas's support, including the 1981 reissue giving the film the subtitle Episode IV – A New Hope, and the 1997 "Special Edition". The reissues have contained many changes, including new scenes, visual effects, and dialogue.

Often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential films of all time, Star Wars quickly became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon, launching an industry of tie-in products, including novels, comics, video games, amusement park attractions and merchandise such as toys, games, and clothing. It became one of the first 25 films selected by the United States Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry in 1989, and its soundtrack was added to the U.S. National Recording Registry in 2004. The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983) followed Star Wars, rounding out the original Star Wars trilogy. A prequel trilogy and a sequel trilogy have since been released, in addition to two standalone films and various television series.

1. ^ "Star Wars". British Board of Film Classification. Archived from the original on January 27, 2016. Retrieved May 25, 2013.
2. ^ "Star Wars (1977)". British Film Institute. Archived from the original on July 9, 2017.
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference BOM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Lamar, Cyriaque (January 13, 2012). "Behold, the 1977 budget breakdown for Star Wars". io9. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved March 3, 2016.

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25 May 1977 – Star Wars is released in theaters.

Star Wars (film)

1977 film by George Lucas

This article is about the original 1977 film. For other films in the franchise, see List of Star Wars films. "A New Hope" redirects here. For other uses, see A New Hope (disambiguation).

Star Wars (later retitled Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope) is a 1977 American epic space opera film written and directed by George Lucas, produced by Lucasfilm Ltd. and released by Twentieth Century-Fox. It is the first film in the Star Wars franchise and the fourth chronological chapter of the "Skywalker Saga". Set in a fictional galaxy under the rule of the tyrannical Galactic Empire, the film follows a group of freedom fighters known as the Rebel Alliance, who aim to destroy the Empire's ultimate weapon, the Death Star. When the rebel leader Princess Leia is captured by the Empire, Luke Skywalker acquires stolen architectural plans of the Death Star and sets out to rescue her while learning the ways of a metaphysical power known as "the Force" from the Jedi Master Obi-Wan Kenobi. The cast includes Mark Hamill, Harrison Ford, Carrie Fisher, Peter Cushing, Alec Guinness, Anthony Daniels, Kenny Baker, Peter Mayhew, David Prowse, and James Earl Jones.

Lucas had the idea for a science fiction film in the vein of Flash Gordon around the time he completed his first film, THX 1138 (1971), and he began working on a treatment after the release of American Graffiti (1973). After numerous rewrites, filming took place throughout 1975 and 1976 in locations including Tunisia and Elstree Studios in Hertfordshire, England. Lucas formed the visual effects company Industrial Light & Magic to help create the film's visual effects. Star Wars suffered production difficulties: the cast and crew believed the film would be a failure, and it went $3 million over budget due to delays.

Few were confident in the film's box office prospects. It was released in a small number of theaters in the United States on May 25, 1977, and quickly became a surprise blockbuster hit, leading to it being expanded to a much wider release. Star Wars opened to positive reviews, with praise for its special effects. It grossed $410 million worldwide during its initial run, surpassing Jaws (1975) to become the highest-grossing film until the release of E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982); subsequent releases have brought its total gross to $775 million. When adjusted for inflation, Star Wars is the second-highest-grossing film in North America (behind Gone with the Wind) and the fourth-highest-grossing film of all time. It received Academy Awards, BAFTA Awards, and Saturn Awards, among others. The film has been reissued many times with Lucas's support, including the 1981 reissue giving the film the subtitle Episode IV – A New Hope, and the 1997 "Special Edition". The reissues have contained many changes, including new scenes, visual effects, and dialogue.

Often regarded as one of the greatest and most influential films of all time, Star Wars quickly became a worldwide pop culture phenomenon, launching an industry of tie-in products, including novels, comics, video games, amusement park attractions and merchandise such as toys, games, and clothing. It became one of the first 25 films selected by the United States Library of Congress for preservation in the National Film Registry in 1989, and its soundtrack was added to the U.S. National Recording Registry in 2004. The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and Return of the Jedi (1983) followed Star Wars, rounding out the original Star Wars trilogy. A prequel trilogy and a sequel trilogy have since been released, in addition to two standalone films and various television series.

1. ^ "Star Wars". British Board of Film Classification. Archived from the original on January 27, 2016. Retrieved May 25, 2013.
2. ^ "Star Wars (1977)". British Film Institute. Archived from the original on July 9, 2017.
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference BOM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Lamar, Cyriaque (January 13, 2012). "Behold, the 1977 budget breakdown for Star Wars". io9. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved March 3, 2016.

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26 May 1896 – Charles Dow publishes the first edition of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.

Dow Jones Industrial Average

American stock market index composed of 30 industry leaders

"Dow Jones index" redirects here. For other indices, see Dow Jones.

The Dow Jones Industrial Average (DJIA), Dow Jones, or simply the Dow (/ˈdaʊ/), is a stock market index of 30 prominent companies listed on stock exchanges in the United States.

The DJIA is one of the oldest and most commonly followed equity indices. It is price-weighted, unlike other common indexes such as the Nasdaq Composite or S&P 500, which use market capitalization.^[4][5] The DJIA also contains fewer stocks, which could exhibit higher risk; however, it could be less volatile when the market is rapidly rising or falling due to its components being well-established large-cap companies.^[6]

The value of the index can also be calculated as the sum of the stock prices of the companies included in the index, divided by a factor, which is approximately 0.163 as of November 2024^[update]. The factor is changed whenever a constituent company undergoes a stock split so that the value of the index is unaffected by the stock split.

First calculated on May 26, 1896,^[2] the index is the second-oldest among U.S. market indices, after the Dow Jones Transportation Average. It was created by Charles Dow, co-founder of both The Wall Street Journal and Dow Jones & Company, and named after him and his business associate, statistician Edward Jones. The first published value of the Dow Jones was 40.94.

The index is maintained by S&P Dow Jones Indices, an entity majority-owned by S&P Global. Its components are selected by a committee. The ten components with the largest dividend yields are commonly referred to as the Dogs of the Dow. As with all stock prices, the prices of the constituent stocks and consequently the value of the index itself are affected by the performance of the respective companies as well as macroeconomic factors.

1. ^ "Dow Record Book Adds Another First". Philly.com. February 24, 1995. Archived from the original on October 4, 2013.
2. ^ ^{a b} Judge, Ben (May 26, 2015). "26 May 1896: Charles Dow launches the Dow Jones Industrial Average". MoneyWeek. Archived from the original on October 6, 2019. Retrieved October 6, 2019.
3. ^ "Dow Jones Industrial Average® Fact Sheet" (PDF). S&P Global.
4. ^ Deporre, James (September 7, 2018). "Ignore the Misleading Dow Jones Industrial Average". TheStreet.com. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
5. ^ Dzombak, Dan (April 18, 2014). "Why the Dow Jones Industrial Average Is Useless". The Motley Fool. Archived from the original on August 12, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2019.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference spglobal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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27 May 1883 – Alexander III is crowned Tsar of Russia.

Alexander III of Russia

Emperor of Russia from 1881 to 1894

In this name that follows East Slavic naming customs, the patronymic is Alexandrovich and the family name is Romanov.

Alexander III (Russian: Александр III Александрович Романов, romanized: Aleksandr III Aleksandrovich Romanov; 10 March 1845 – 1 November 1894)^[1] was Emperor of Russia, King of Congress Poland and Grand Duke of Finland from 13 March 1881 until his death in 1894.^[2] He was highly reactionary in domestic affairs and reversed some of the liberal reforms of his father, Alexander II, a policy of "counter-reforms" (Russian: контрреформы). Under the influence of Konstantin Pobedonostsev (1827–1907), he acted to maximize his autocratic powers.^{[citation needed]}

During his reign, Russia fought no major wars, and he came to be known as The Peacemaker (Russian: Царь-Миротворец, romanized: Tsar’-Mirotvorets Russian pronunciation: [(t)sɑːr mʲɪrɐˈtvorʲɪt͡s]), a laudatory title enduring into 21st century historiography.^[3] His major foreign policy achievement was the Franco-Russian Alliance, a major shift in international relations that eventually embroiled Russia in World War I. His political legacy represented a direct challenge to the European cultural order set forth by German statesman Otto von Bismarck, intermingling Russian influences with the shifting balances of power.^[4]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ 10 March [O.S. 26 February] 1845 – 1 November [O.S. 20 October] 1894
2. ^ 13 March [O.S. 1 March] 1881 – 1 November [O.S. 20 October] 1894.
3. ^ Fedyashin, Anton (2023). "Book Review: Istoriia rossiiskogo gosudarstva. Tsar'-osvoboditel' i tsar'-mirotvorets. Lekarstvo dlia imperii [History of the Russian State. The Tsar-Liberator and the Tsar-Peacemaker. Medicine for the Empire] by Boris Akunin". European History Quarterly. 53 (4): 698–700. doi:10.1177/02656914231199945a. S2CID 263705950.
4. ^ Kennan, George F. (1979). The Decline of Bismarck's European Order. Princeton University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv141649s. JSTOR j.ctv141649s. S2CID 241648947.

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28 May 1977 – In Southgate, Kentucky, the Beverly Hills Supper Club is engulfed in fire, killing 165 people inside.

Beverly Hills Supper Club fire

Nightclub fire in Kentucky in 1977

On the evening of May 28, 1977, a fire occurred at the Beverly Hills Supper Club in Southgate, Kentucky. With a total of 165 deaths and over 200 injuries, it is history's seventh deadliest nightclub fire.^[1][2]

1. ^ Southgate, KY Nightclub Fire Disaster, May 1977 | GenDisasters ... Genealogy in Tragedy, Disasters, Fires, Floods Archived April 25, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. .gendisasters.com. Retrieved on May 28, 2013.
2. ^ "Deadliest public assembly and nightclub fires". National Fire Protection Association. Archived from the original on July 6, 2019. Retrieved November 9, 2023.

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29 May 1848 – Wisconsin is admitted as the 30th U.S. state.

Wisconsin

U.S. state

For other uses, see Wisconsin (disambiguation).

"Badger State" redirects here. For ships with the name, see SS Badger State.

State in the United States

Wisconsin (/wɪˈskɒnsɪn/ ^ⓘ wih-SKON-sin)^[12] is a state in the Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest of the United States. It borders Minnesota to the west, Iowa to the southwest, Illinois to the south, Lake Michigan to the east, Michigan to the northeast, and Lake Superior to the north. With a population of about 6 million^[13] and an area of about 65,500 square miles, Wisconsin is the 20th-largest state by population and the 23rd-largest by area. It has 72 counties. Its most populous city is Milwaukee; its capital and second-most populous city is Madison. Other urban areas include Green Bay, Kenosha, Racine, Eau Claire, and the Fox Cities.^[14]

Wisconsin's geography is diverse, shaped by Ice Age glaciers except in the Driftless Area. The Northern Highland and Western Upland along with a part of the Central Plain occupy the state's western part, with lowlands stretching to Lake Michigan. Wisconsin is third to Ontario and Michigan in the length of its Great Lakes coastline. Its northern portion is home to the Chequamegon–Nicolet National Forest. At the time of European contact, the area was inhabited by Algonquian and Siouan nations, and today it is home to eleven federally recognized tribes.^[15] Originally part of the Northwest Territory, it was admitted as a state in 1848. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many European settlers entered the state, mostly from Germany and Scandinavia.^[16][17] Wisconsin remains a center of German American and Scandinavian American culture,^[18] particularly in respect to its cuisine, with foods such as bratwurst and kringle.

Wisconsin is one of the nation's leading dairy producers and is known as "America's Dairyland"; it is particularly famous for its cheese.^[19][20] The state is also famous for its beer, particularly and historically in Milwaukee, most notably as the headquarters of the Miller Brewing Company. Wisconsin has some of the nation's most permissive alcohol laws and is known for its drinking culture.^[21][22] Its economy is dominated by manufacturing, healthcare, information technology, and agriculture—specifically dairy, cranberries, and ginseng.^[23] Tourism is also a major contributor to its economy.^[24] The gross domestic product in 2020 was $348 billion.^[25] Wisconsin is home to one UNESCO World Heritage Site, comprising two of the most significant buildings designed by Wisconsin-born architect Frank Lloyd Wright: his studio at Taliesin near Spring Green and his Jacobs I House in Madison.^[26] The Republican Party was founded in Wisconsin in 1854; in national and statewide elections, it is considered a swing state, although the Republican Party has controlled the state legislature for 20 of the past 22 years.

1. ^ Dornfeld, Margaret; Hantula, Richard (2010). Wisconsin: It's my state!. Marshall Cavendish. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-60870-062-2. Archived from the original on September 7, 2015. Retrieved June 10, 2015.
2. ^ Urdang, Laurence (1988). Names and Nicknames of Places and Things. Penguin Group USA. p. 8. ISBN 9780452009073. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2015. "America's Dairyland" A nickname of Wisconsin
3. ^ Kane, Joseph Nathan; Alexander, Gerard L. (1979). Nicknames and sobriquets of U.S. cities, States, and counties. Scarecrow Press. p. 412. ISBN 9780810812550. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2015. Wisconsin—America's Dairyland, The Badger State ...The Copper State
4. ^ Herman, Jennifer L. (2008). Wisconsin Encyclopedia, American Guide. North American Book Dist LLC. p. 10. ISBN 9781878592613. Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved May 25, 2015. Nicknames Wisconsin is generally known as The Badger State, or America's Dairyland, although in the past it has been nicknamed The Copper State.
5. ^ "Wisconsin State Symbols" Archived February 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine in Wisconsin Blue Book 2005–2006, p. 966.
6. ^ "State Area Measurements and Internal Point Coordinates". US Census Bureau. 2010. Archived from the original on April 7, 2020. Retrieved October 22, 2023.
7. ^ ^{a b} "Elevations and Distances in the United States". United States Geological Survey. 2001. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
8. ^ ^{a b} Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988.
9. ^ "United States Census Quick Facts Wisconsin". Retrieved January 5, 2025.
10. ^ "Household Income in States and Metropolitan Areas: 2023" (PDF). Retrieved January 12, 2025.
11. ^ "Wisconsin - Census Bureau Profile". US Census Bureau. 2023. Archived from the original on February 11, 2025. Retrieved May 26, 2025.
12. ^ "Wisconsin". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
13. ^ "United States Census Quick Facts Wisconsin". Retrieved January 5, 2025.
14. ^ "Census: Madison, suburbs top list of fastest-growing cities in Wisconsin". Wisconsin State Journal. Archived from the original on July 25, 2020. Retrieved July 24, 2020.
15. ^ "American Indians in Wisconsin – Overview". Wisconsin Department of Health Services. August 12, 2014. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
16. ^ "Germans in Wisconsin". Wisconsin Historical Society. August 3, 2012. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
17. ^ Gordon, Scott (November 4, 2016). "How Scandinavians Transformed The Midwest, And The Midwest Transformed Them Too". WisContext. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
18. ^ "German and Scandinavian Immigrants in the American Midwest". Washington State University. Washington State University. Archived from the original on August 12, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
19. ^ "wisconsin.uk". Archived from the original on October 25, 2019. Retrieved October 25, 2019.
20. ^ Our Fifty States.
21. ^ Matthews, Christopher. "The 3 Best and 3 Worst States in America for Drinking". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Archived from the original on September 1, 2019. Retrieved October 29, 2019.
22. ^ White, Laurel (May 19, 2019). "High Tolerance: How State's Drinking Culture Developed". urbanmilwaukee.com. Wisconsin Public Radio. Archived from the original on December 8, 2021. Retrieved December 8, 2021.
23. ^ Adams, Barry. "Ginseng continues rebound in central Wisconsin". Wisconsin State Journal. Archived from the original on August 11, 2018. Retrieved August 11, 2018.
24. ^ "Evers announces $10M to promote tourism industry in Wisconsin". WDJT-TV. August 3, 2021. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
25. ^ "Wisconsin". Forbes. Archived from the original on August 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
26. ^ "The 20th-century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on July 9, 2019. Retrieved July 7, 2019.

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30 May 1635 – Thirty Years' War: The Peace of Prague is signed.

Peace of Prague (1635)

For the settlement ending the Austro-Prussian War, see Peace of Prague (1866).

Saxony makes peace with Emperor Ferdinand

The Peace of Prague^[c], dated 30 May 1635 Old Style, was a significant turning point in the Thirty Years' War. Signed by John George I, Elector of Saxony, and Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, the terms ended Saxony's support for the anti-Imperial coalition led by Sweden.

Other states within the Holy Roman Empire subsequently joined the treaty, and their exit was a key factor in Catholic France entering the war as an ally of Protestant Sweden. Although fighting continued until 1648, it is generally agreed Prague ended the war as primarily one of religion.^[3][4]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ ^{a b} Asbach & Schröder 2014, p. 288.
2. ^ Espenhorst 2016, p. 510.
3. ^ Onnekink & Rommelse 2019, p. 62.
4. ^ Espenhorst 2016, p. 512.

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31 May 1977 – The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System is completed.

Trans-Alaska Pipeline System

Alaskan oil pipeline system

"Alaska Pipeline" redirects here. For the proposed natural gas pipeline from Alaska to Alberta, see Alaska gas pipeline.

The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System (TAPS) is an oil transportation system spanning Alaska, including the trans-Alaska crude-oil pipeline, 12 pump stations, several hundred miles of feeder pipelines, and the Valdez Marine Terminal. TAPS is one of the world's largest pipeline systems. The core pipeline itself, which is commonly called the Alaska pipeline, trans-Alaska pipeline, or Alyeska pipeline, (or the pipeline as referred to by Alaskan residents), is an 800-mile (1,287 km) long, 48-inch (1.22 m) diameter pipeline that conveys oil from Prudhoe Bay, on Alaska's North Slope, south to Valdez, on the shores of Prince William Sound in southcentral Alaska. The crude oil pipeline is privately owned by the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company.

Oil was first discovered in Prudhoe Bay in 1968 and the 800 miles of 48" steel pipe was ordered from Japan in 1969 (U.S. steel manufacturers did not have the capacity at that time). However, construction was delayed for nearly 5 years due to legal and environmental issues. The eight oil companies that owned the rights to the oil hired Bechtel for the pipeline design and construction and Fluor for the 12 pump stations and the Valdez Terminal. Preconstruction work during 1973 and 1974 was critical and included the building of camps to house workers, construction of roads and bridges where none existed, and carefully laying out the pipeline right of way to avoid difficult river crossings and animal habitats. Construction of the pipeline system took place between 1975 and 1977. It was important for the United States to have a domestic source of oil to offset the high rise in foreign oil and the Alaska Pipeline fulfilled that obligation.

Building oil pipelines in the 1950s and 60s was not difficult in the contiguous United States. However, in building the Alaska Pipeline, engineers faced a wide range of difficulties, stemming mainly from the extreme cold and the difficult, isolated terrain. The construction of the pipeline was one of the first large-scale projects to deal with problems caused by permafrost, and special construction techniques had to be developed to cope with the frozen ground. The project attracted tens of thousands of workers to Alaska due to high wages, long work hours, and paid-for housing, causing a boomtown atmosphere in Valdez, Fairbanks, and Anchorage.

The first barrel of oil traveled through the pipeline in the summer of 1977,^[1][2][3][4] with full-scale production by the end of the year. Several notable incidents of oil leakage have occurred since, including those caused by sabotage, maintenance failures, and bullet holes.^[5] As of 2015, it had shipped over 17 billion barrels (2.7×10⁹ m³) of oil.^[6] The pipeline has been shown capable of delivering over two million barrels of oil per day but nowadays usually operates at a fraction of maximum capacity. If flow were to stop or throughput were too little, the line could freeze. The pipeline could be extended and used to transport oil produced from controversial proposed drilling projects in the nearby Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR).

1. ^ ^{a b} "'Pig' leading flow of oil in pipeline". Eugene Register-Guard. (Oregon). UPI. June 20, 1977. p. 1A.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Hot North Slope oil flowing". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Washington. Associated Press. June 20, 1977. p. 1.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Valdez celebrates arrival of first oil". Eugene Register-Guard. (Oregon). Associated Press. July 29, 1977. p. 1A.
4. ^ "Tanker casts off with load of oil". Eugene Register-Guard. (Oregon). wire services. August 2, 1977. p. 3A.
5. ^ Verhovek, Sam Howe (October 6, 2001). "Pipeline Crews Tackle Huge Oil Spill Caused by Shooting". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved June 7, 2023.
6. ^ 2016 Fact Book, p. 71

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1 June 1533 – Anne Boleyn is crowned Queen of England.

Anne Boleyn

Queen of England from 1533 to 1536

For other uses, see Anne Boleyn (disambiguation).

Anne Boleyn (/ˈbʊlɪn, bʊˈlɪn/;^[7][8][9][b] c. 1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536) was Queen of England from 1533 to 1536, as the second wife of King Henry VIII. The circumstances of her marriage and execution, by beheading for treason, made her a key figure in the political and religious upheaval that marked the start of the English Reformation.

Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn (later Earl of Wiltshire), and his wife, Elizabeth Howard, and was educated in the Netherlands and France. Anne returned to England in early 1522, to marry her cousin James Butler, 9th Earl of Ormond; the marriage plans were broken off, and instead, she secured a post at court as maid of honour to Henry VIII's wife, Catherine of Aragon. Early in 1523, Anne was secretly betrothed to Henry Percy, son of Henry Percy, 5th Earl of Northumberland, but the betrothal was broken off when the Earl refused to support it. Cardinal Thomas Wolsey refused the match in January 1524.

In February or March 1526, Henry VIII began his pursuit of Anne. She resisted his attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress, as her sister Mary had previously been. Henry focused on annulling his marriage to Catherine, so he would be free to marry Anne. After Wolsey failed to obtain an annulment from Pope Clement VII, it became clear the marriage would not be annulled by the Catholic Church. As a result, Henry and his advisers, such as Thomas Cromwell, began breaking the Church's power in England and closing the monasteries. Henry and Anne formally married on 25 January 1533, after a secret wedding on 14 November 1532. On 23 May 1533, the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer declared Henry and Catherine's marriage null and void. Five days later, he declared Henry and Anne's marriage valid. Clement excommunicated Henry and Cranmer. As a result of the marriage and excommunications, the first break between the Church of England and the Catholic Church took place, and the King took control of the Church of England. Anne was crowned queen on 1 June 1533. On 7 September, she gave birth to the future Queen Elizabeth I. Henry was disappointed to have a daughter, but hoped a son would follow and professed to love Elizabeth. Anne subsequently had three miscarriages and by March 1536, Henry was courting Jane Seymour.

Henry had Anne investigated for high treason in April 1536. On 2 May, she was arrested and sent to the Tower of London, where she was tried before a jury, including Henry Percy, her former betrothed, and her uncle Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk. She was convicted on 15 May and beheaded four days later. Historians view the charges, which included adultery, incest with her brother George, and plotting to kill the King, as unconvincing.^[11][12]

After her daughter, Elizabeth, became queen in 1558, Anne became venerated as a martyr and heroine of the English Reformation, particularly through the works of George Wyatt.^[13] She has inspired, or been mentioned in, many cultural works and retained her hold on the popular imagination. She has been called "the most influential and important queen consort England has ever had",^[14] as she provided the occasion for Henry to declare the English Church's independence from the Vatican.

1. ^ "Doubts raised over Anne Boleyn portraits". Hever Castle. 24 February 2015. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
2. ^ Spender, Anna. "The many faces of Anne Boleyn" (PDF). Hever Castle. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 19 June 2021.
3. ^ "The Offspring of Thomas and Elizabeth Boleyn". The Tudor Society. 25 March 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2021.
4. ^ "Letters and papers, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII". Internet Archive. 13 December 1862. Retrieved 21 October 2021.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ives, p.3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Weir 1991
7. ^ Pronunciations with stress on the second syllable were rare until recently and were not mentioned by reference works until the 1960s; see The Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations (2006) by Charles Harrington Elster
8. ^ Jones, Daniel Everyman's English Pronouncing Dictionary 12th edition (1963)
9. ^ Wells, John C. (1990). Longman pronunciation dictionary. Harlow, England: Longman. p. 83. ISBN 0-582-05383-8. entry "Boleyn"
10. ^ M. A. E. Wood, Letters, ii. 74-75; Letters and Papers of the Reign of Henry VIII, v. 12
11. ^ Gairdner, James, ed. (1887). Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VIII, Volume 10, January–June 1536. Her Majesty's Stationery Office. pp. 349–371.
12. ^ Wriothesley, Charles (1875). A Chronicle of England During the Reigns of the Tudors, From A.D. 1485 to 1559. Vol. 1. Camden Society. pp. 189–226.
13. ^ Ives 2004, pp. 48–50.
14. ^ Ives 2004, p. xv.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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2 June 2012 – Former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak is sentenced to life imprisonment for his role in the killing of demonstrators during the 2011 Egyptian revolution.

Egyptian revolution of 2011

Redirect to:

• 2011 Egyptian revolution

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3 June 1539 – Hernando de Soto claims Florida for Spain.

Hernando de Soto

Spanish explorer and conquistador (c.1479–1542)

For the Peruvian economist, see Hernando de Soto (economist).

Hernando de Soto (/də ˈsoʊtoʊ/;^[2] Spanish: [eɾˈnando ðe ˈsoto]; c. 1497 – 21 May 1542) was a Spanish explorer and conquistador who was involved in expeditions in Nicaragua and the Yucatan Peninsula. He played an important role in Francisco Pizarro's conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru, but is best known for leading the first European expedition deep into the territory of the modern-day United States (through Florida, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, North Carolina, South Carolina, Mississippi, and most likely Arkansas).^[3][4] He is the first European documented as having crossed the Mississippi River.^[5]

De Soto's North American expedition was a vast undertaking. It ranged throughout what is now the southeastern United States, searching both for gold, which had been reported by various Native American tribes and earlier coastal explorers, and for a passage to China or the Pacific coast. De Soto died in 1542 on the banks of the Mississippi River;^[6] sources disagree on the exact location, whether it was what is now Lake Village, Arkansas, or Ferriday, Louisiana.

1. ^ Leon, P., 1998, The Discovery and Conquest of Peru: Chronicles of the New World Encounter, edited and translated by Cook and Cook, Durham: Duke University Press, ISBN 978-0822321460
2. ^ "De Soto". Collins English Dictionary.
3. ^ Blanton, Dennis B. (2020). Conquistador's Wake: Tracking the Legacy of Hernando de Soto in the Indigenous Southeast. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-5637-2.
4. ^ Hudson, Charles (15 January 2018). Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun: Hernando de Soto and the South's Ancient Chiefdoms. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 978-0-8203-5290-9.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Morison1974 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "De Soto dies in the American wilderness". Retrieved 5 August 2017.

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4 June 1896 – Henry Ford completes the Ford Quadricycle, his first gasoline-powered automobile, and gives it a successful test run.

Ford Quadricycle

First automobile developed by American industrialist Henry Ford (1896)

Motor vehicle

The Ford Quadricycle was the first vehicle developed by Henry Ford. Ford's first car was a simple frame with a gas-powered engine mounted onto four bicycle wheels.^[3]

1. ^ Herndon, Ford: An Unconventional Biography of the Men and Their Times, (New York: Weybright & Talley, 1969), p. 62; also Flammang et al., Ford Chronicle, (Publications International, 1992), p. 9 (as cited in Brinkley, David, Wheels for the World: Henry Ford, His Company, and a Century of Progress, (New York: Penguin Group, 2003), p. 23
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Clymer was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference books.google.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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5 June 2017 – Montenegro becomes the 29th member of the NATO.

Montenegro

Country in Southeast Europe

This article is about the country in Europe. For other uses, see Montenegro (disambiguation).

"Crna Gora" redirects here. For other uses, see Crna Gora (disambiguation).

Montenegro^[d] is a country in Southeast Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula.^[10] Its 25 municipalities have a total population of 633,158 people in an area of 13,883 km² (5,360 sq mi). It is bordered by Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast, Kosovo to the east, Albania to the southeast, and Croatia to the west, and has a coastline along the Adriatic Sea to the southwest.^[11] The capital and largest city is Podgorica, while Cetinje is the Old Royal Capital and cultural centre.^[12]

Before the arrival of the Slav peoples in the Balkans in the 6th and 7th centuries CE, the area now known as Montenegro was inhabited principally by people known as Illyrians. During the Early Medieval period, three principalities were located on the territory of modern-day Montenegro: Duklja, roughly corresponding to the southern half; Travunia, the west; and Rascia proper, the north.^[13][14][15] The Principality of Zeta emerged in the 14th and 15th centuries. From the late 14th century to the late 18th century, large parts of southern Montenegro were ruled by the Venetian Republic and incorporated into Venetian Albania.^[16] The name Montenegro was first used to refer to the country in the late 15th century. After falling under Ottoman Empire rule, Montenegro gained semi-autonomy in 1696 under the rule of the House of Petrović-Njegoš, first as a theocracy and later as a secular principality. Montenegro's independence was recognised by the Great Powers at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.

In 1910, the country became a kingdom. After World War I, the kingdom became part of Yugoslavia. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, the republics of Serbia and Montenegro together proclaimed a federation. In June 2006 Montenegro declared its independence from Serbia and Montenegro following an independence referendum, creating Montenegro and Serbia as they exist today.^[17]

Montenegro has an upper-middle-income economy, mostly service-based, and is in late transition to a market economy.^[18] It is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the World Trade Organization, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Council of Europe, and the Central European Free Trade Agreement.^[19] Montenegro is also a founding member of the Union for the Mediterranean,^[20] and has been in the process of joining the European Union since 2012.^[21]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Language and alphabet Article 13". Constitution of Montenegro. WIPO. 19 October 2007. Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian and Croatian shall also be in the official use.
2. ^ "Language and alphabet Article 13". Constitution of Montenegro. WIPO. 19 October 2007. The official language in Montenegro shall be Montenegrin. Cyrillic and Latin alphabet shall be equal.
3. ^ ^{a b} "Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2023" (PDF). Monstat. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
4. ^ "SY MNE – 2024" (PDF). Statistički godišnjak. 2024. ISSN 0354-2076.
5. ^ "Procjene broja stanovnika na 1. januar". MONSTAT.
6. ^ "Statistical Office of Montenegro – MONSTAT" (PDF).
7. ^ ^{a b c d} "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Montenegro)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
8. ^ Đokić, Dunja (2024). Anketa o dohotku i uslovima života (EU-SILC) 2024 (PDF). MONSTAT.
9. ^ "Human Development Report 2025" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 6 May 2025. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2025. Retrieved 6 May 2025.
10. ^ "Montenegro – The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. 19 October 2021. Retrieved 6 March 2022.
11. ^ "Montenegro – History". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 9 April 2021.
12. ^ "Cetinje Historic Core". whc.unesco.org. 4 March 2025.
13. ^ Luscombe, David; Riley-Smith, Jonathan (2004). The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume 4, c. 1024 – c. 1198. Cambridge University Press. pp. 266–. ISBN 9780521414111.
14. ^ Sedlar, Jean W. (2013). East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500. University of Washington Press. pp. 21–. ISBN 9780295800646.
15. ^ John Van Antwerp Fine (1983). The early medieval Balkans: a critical survey from the sixth to the late twelfth century. University of Michigan Press. p. 194. ISBN 9780472100255.
16. ^ Cite error: The named reference :0 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
17. ^ "Serbia ends union with Montenegro". The Irish Times. 5 June 2006. Retrieved 2 September 2020.
18. ^ "Montenegro Economy: Population, GDP, Inflation, Business, Trade, FDI, Corruption". The Heritage Foundation. 9 March 2021. Archived from the original on 6 September 2023. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
19. ^ "Membership of Montenegro in International Organisations". mvp.gov.me. Archived from the original on 16 April 2021. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
20. ^ "Montenegro". European Western Balkans. 24 February 2020. Retrieved 16 April 2021.
21. ^ "European Neighbourhood Policy And Enlargement Negotiations – European Commission". European Neighbourhood Policy And Enlargement Negotiations – European Commission. 6 December 2016. Retrieved 16 April 2021.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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6 June 1749 – The Conspiracy of the Slaves in Malta is discovered.

Conspiracy of the Slaves

Redirect to:

• 1749 Muslim slave revolt plot in Malta

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7 June 1981 – The Israeli Air Force destroys Iraq's Osiraq nuclear reactor during Operation Opera.

Operation Opera

1981 Israeli airstrike on an Iraqi nuclear reactor

Operation Opera (Hebrew: מִבְצָע אוֹפֵּרָה),^[1] also known as Operation Babylon,^[2] was a surprise airstrike conducted by the Israeli Air Force on 7 June 1981, which destroyed an unfinished Iraqi nuclear reactor located 17 kilometres (11 miles) southeast of Baghdad, Iraq.^[3][4][5] The Israeli operation came a year after the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force had caused minor damage to the same nuclear facility in Operation Scorch Sword, with the damage having been subsequently repaired by French technicians. Operation Opera, and related Israeli government statements following it, established the Begin Doctrine, which explicitly stated the strike was not an anomaly, but instead "a precedent for every future government in Israel". Israel's counter-proliferation preventive strike added another dimension to its existing policy of deliberate ambiguity, as it related to the nuclear weapons capability of other states in the region.^[6]

In 1976, Iraq purchased an Osiris-class nuclear reactor from France.^[7][8] While Iraq and France maintained that the reactor, named Osirak by the French, was intended for peaceful scientific research,^[9] the Israelis viewed the reactor with suspicion, believing it was designed to produce nuclear weapons that could escalate the ongoing Arab–Israeli conflict.^[3] On 7 June 1981, a flight of Israeli Air Force F-16A fighter aircraft, with an escort of F-15As, bombed the Osirak reactor deep inside Iraq.^[10] Israel called the operation an act of self-defense, saying that the reactor had "less than a month to go" before "it might have become critical."^[11] The airstrike reportedly killed ten Iraqi soldiers and one French civilian.^[12] The attack took place about three weeks before the 1981 Israeli legislative elections for the Knesset.^[13]

At the time of its occurrence, the attack was met with sharp international criticism, including in the United States, and Israel was rebuked by the United Nations Security Council and General Assembly in two separate resolutions.^[14][15] Media reactions were also negative: "Israel's sneak attack ... was an act of inexcusable and short-sighted aggression",^[16] wrote The New York Times, while the Los Angeles Times called it "state-sponsored terrorism".^{[14][better source needed]} The destruction of Iraq's Osirak reactor has been cited as an example of a preventive strike in contemporary scholarship on international law.^[17][18] The efficacy of the attack is debated by historians,^[19] who acknowledge that it brought Iraq back from the brink of nuclear capability but drove its weapons program underground and cemented Iraqi president Saddam Hussein's future ambitions for acquiring nuclear weapons.

1. ^ Perlmutter, p. 172.
2. ^ Amos Perlmutter, Michael I. Handel, Uri Bar-Joseph. Two Minutes over Baghdad. Routledge (2nd ed.), 2008. p. 120.
3. ^ ^{a b} "1981: Israel bombs Baghdad nuclear reactor". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 7 June 1981. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
4. ^ Neff, Donald (1995). "Israel Bombs Iraq's Osirak Nuclear Research Facility". Washington Report on Middle East Affairs. Andrew I. Kilgore: 81–82. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference fainberg was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Country Profiles -Israel Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Nuclear Threat Initiative (NTI) updated May 2014
7. ^ Ramberg, Bennett. Nuclear Power Plants as Weapons for the Enemy: An Unrecognized Military Peril. University of California Press, 1985. p. xvii.
8. ^ Cordesman, Anthony H. Iraq and the War of Sanctions: Conventional Threats and Weapons of Mass Destruction. Praeger, 1999. p. 605.
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference worldbook was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Shirley V. Scott, Anthony Billingsley, Christopher Michaelsen. International Law and the Use of Force: A Documentary and Reference Guide. Praeger, 2009. p. 182.
11. ^ Scott, p. 132.
12. ^ Polakow-Suransky, Sasha. The Unspoken Alliance: Israel's Secret Relationship with Apartheid South Africa. Pantheon (1 ed.), 2010. p. 145.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference perryIQP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ ^{a b} Steele, Jonathan (7 June 2002). "The Bush doctrine makes nonsense of the UN charter". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 November 2010.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference scres was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ "Israel's Illusion". Opinion. The New York Times. 9 June 1981. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
17. ^ Shue, Henry and Rhodin, David (2007). Preemption: Military Action and Moral Justification. Oxford University Press. p. 215.
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference council was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ "Osirak: Threats real and imagined". 5 June 2006.

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8 June 1984 – Homosexuality is declared legal in the Australian state of New South Wales.

Homosexuality

Attraction between people of the same sex or gender

"Homosexual" redirects here. For the album, see Homosexual (album).

This article is about homosexuality in humans. For homosexuality in other species, see Homosexual behavior in animals.

Homosexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or sexual behavior between people of the same sex or gender.^[1][2][3] As a sexual orientation, homosexuality is "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions" exclusively to people of the same sex or gender.^{[4][failed verification]} It also denotes identity based on attraction, related behavior, and community affiliation.^[5][6]

Along with bisexuality and heterosexuality, homosexuality is one of the three main categories of sexual orientation within the heterosexual–homosexual continuum.^[5] Although no single theory on the cause of sexual orientation has yet gained widespread support, scientists favor biological theories.^[7][8][9] There is considerably more evidence supporting nonsocial, biological causes of sexual orientation than social ones, especially for males.^[7][10][11] A major hypothesis implicates the prenatal environment, specifically the organizational effects of hormones on the fetal brain.^[7][9][12] There is no substantive evidence which suggests parenting or early childhood experiences play a role in developing a sexual orientation.^[7][13] Scientific research shows that homosexuality is a natural and normal variation in human sexuality and is not in and of itself a source of negative psychological effects.^[5][14] Major mental health organizations overwhelmingly reject sexual orientation change efforts (such as conversion therapy) as ineffective, scientifically unsupported, potentially harmful, and rooted in stigma rather than evidence.^[15][16]

The most common terms for homosexual people are lesbian for females and gay for males, but the term gay also commonly refers to both homosexual females and males. The number of people who are gay or lesbian is difficult for researchers to estimate reliably, as many gay and lesbian people do not openly identify as such due to prejudice or discrimination such as homophobia.^[17] Homosexual behavior has also been documented in many non-human animal species,^[23] though domestic sheep are the only conclusively documented example of nonhuman animals exhibiting exclusive same-sex orientation.^[7]

Many gay and lesbian people are in committed same-sex relationships. These relationships are equivalent to heterosexual relationships in essential psychological respects.^[6] Homosexual relationships and acts have been admired as well as condemned throughout recorded history, depending on the form they took and the culture in which they occurred.^[24] Since the end of the 20th century, there has been a global movement towards freedom and equality for gay people, including the introduction of anti-bullying legislation to protect gay children at school, legislation ensuring non-discrimination, equal ability to serve in the military, equal access to health care, equal ability to adopt and parent, and the establishment of marriage equality.

1. ^ "Definitions Related to Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity in APA Documents" (PDF). American Psychological Association. 2015. p. 6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 April 2022. Retrieved 6 February 2020. Sexual orientation refers to the sex of those to whom one is sexually and romantically attracted. ... [It is] one's enduring sexual attraction to male partners, female partners, or both. Sexual orientation may be heterosexual, samesex (gay or lesbian), or bisexual. ... A person may be attracted to men, women, both, neither, or to people who are genderqueer, androgynous, or have other gender identities. Individuals may identify as lesbian, gay, heterosexual, bisexual, queer, pansexual, or asexual, among others. ... Categories of sexual orientation typically have included attraction to members of one's own sex (gay men or lesbians), attraction to members of the other sex (heterosexuals), and attraction to members of both sexes (bisexuals). While these categories continue to be widely used, research has suggested that sexual orientation does not always appear in such definable categories and instead occurs on a continuum .... Some people identify as pansexual or queer in terms of their sexual orientation, which means they define their sexual orientation outside of the gender binary of 'male' and 'female' only.
2. ^ Eric B. Shiraev; David A. Levy (2016). Cross-Cultural Psychology: Critical Thinking and Contemporary Applications, Sixth Edition. Taylor & Francis. p. 216. ISBN 978-1134871315. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021. Sexual orientation refers to romantic or sexual attraction to people of a specific sex or gender. ... Heterosexuality, along with bisexuality and homosexuality are at least three main categories of the continuum of sexual orientation. ... Homosexuality is a romantic or sexual attraction between persons of the same sex or gender.
3. ^ James R. Lehman; Kristine Diaz; Henry Ng; Elizabeth M. Petty; Meena Thatikunta; Kristen Eckstrand, eds. (2019). The Equal Curriculum: The Student and Educator Guide to LGBTQ Health. Springer Nature. p. 5. ISBN 978-3030240257. Archived from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021. Homosexual, literally meaning "same sex", is used as an adjective to describe same-sex or same-gender attraction. ... The term introduces ambiguity because is often applied as an identity label to a person or group based on their behaviors, not because of self-identified sexual orientation or sexual desires. ... in addition to having potentially negative connotations, homosexual is unclear as to what group of people it describes...
4. ^ "General Definitions". LGBT Resource Center. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
5. ^ ^{a b c} "Sexual orientation, homosexuality and bisexuality". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 8 August 2013. Retrieved 10 August 2013.
6. ^ ^{a b} "Case No. S147999 in the Supreme Court of the State of California, In re Marriage Cases Judicial Council Coordination Proceeding No. 4365... – APA California Amicus Brief — As Filed" (PDF). p. 30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2020. Retrieved 21 December 2010.
7. ^ ^{a b c d e} Bailey JM, Vasey PL, Diamond LM, Breedlove SM, Vilain E, Epprecht M (2016). "Sexual Orientation, Controversy, and Science". Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 17 (21): 45–101. doi:10.1177/1529100616637616. PMID 27113562.
8. ^ Frankowski BL; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Adolescence (June 2004). "Sexual orientation and adolescents". Pediatrics. 113 (6): 1827–32. doi:10.1542/peds.113.6.1827. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 15173519. Archived from the original on 20 March 2013. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
9. ^ ^{a b} Bogaert, Anthony F.; Skorska, Malvina N. (1 March 2020). "A short review of biological research on the development of sexual orientation". Hormones and Behavior. 119: 104659. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2019.104659. ISSN 0018-506X. PMID 31911036.
10. ^ LeVay, Simon (2017). Gay, Straight, and the Reason Why: The Science of Sexual Orientation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-029737-4. OL 26246092M – via Open Library.
11. ^ Balthazart, Jacques (2012). The Biology of Homosexuality. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199838820. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2019.
12. ^ Swift-Gallant, Ashlyn; Aung, Toe; Rosenfield, Kevin; Dawood, Khytam; Puts, David (2023). "Organizational Effects of Gonadal Hormones on Human Sexual Orientation". Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology. 9 (4): 344–370. doi:10.1007/s40750-023-00226-x. ISSN 2198-7335.
13. ^ "Submission to the Church of England's Listening Exercise on Human Sexuality". The Royal College of Psychiatrists. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
14. ^ "'Therapies' to change sexual orientation lack medical justification and threaten health". Pan American Health Organization. Archived from the original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved 26 May 2012.
15. ^ "Resolution on Appropriate Affirmative Responses to Sexual Orientation Distress and Change Efforts". American Psychological Association. 2009. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 18 August 2022.
16. ^ "Psychological practices that attempt to change sexual orientation: Position statement". Australian Psychological Society. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
17. ^ LeVay, Simon (1996). Queer Science: The Use and Abuse of Research into Homosexuality Archived 13 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Cambridge: The MIT Press ISBN 0-262-12199-9
18. ^ "Same-sex Behavior Seen in Nearly All Animals, Review Finds". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 18 June 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2018.
19. ^ "1,500 animal species practice homosexuality. The Medical News, 23 October 2006". Archived from the original on 10 February 2011.
20. ^ Sommer, Volker & Paul L. Vasey (2006), Homosexual Behaviour in Animals, An Evolutionary Perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. ISBN 0-521-86446-1
21. ^ (Bagemihl 1999)
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference Biological Exuberance: Animal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
23. ^ ^{[18][19][20][21][22]}
24. ^ Sexual Orientation Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine. American Psychiatric Association.

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9 June 1934 – Donald Duck makes his debut in The Wise Little Hen.

The Wise Little Hen

1934 Silly Symphony cartoon

The Wise Little Hen is a 1934 Walt Disney produced Silly Symphonies animated short film, based on the fable The Little Red Hen. The film features the debut of Donald Duck, dancing to "The Sailor's Hornpipe".^[3] Donald and his friend Peter Pig try to avoid work by faking stomach aches until Mrs. Hen teaches them the value of labor.

1. ^ "Happy Birthday Donald Duck! Walt Disney's "The Wise Little Hen" (1934) |". Cartoon Research. Retrieved March 14, 2018.
2. ^ Kaufman, J.B. (June 8, 2020). "When's Your Birthday?". Cartoon Research. Retrieved September 26, 2020.
3. ^ Lenburg, Jeff (1999). The Encyclopedia of Animated Cartoons. Checkmark Books. pp. 74–76. ISBN 0-8160-3831-7. Retrieved June 6, 2020.

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10 June 1947 – Saab produces its first automobile.

Saab Automobile

Defunct Swedish car manufacturer (1945-2016)

This article is about the car manufacturer. For the aerospace and defence company, see Saab AB. For other uses, see Saab.

Saab Automobile AB^[1][2] (/sɑːb/) was a car manufacturer that was founded in Sweden in 1945 when its parent company, Saab AB, began a project to design a small automobile. The first production model, the Saab 92, was launched in 1949. In 1968, the parent company merged with Scania-Vabis, and ten years later the Saab 900 was launched, in time becoming Saab's best-selling model. In the mid-1980s, the new Saab 9000 model also appeared.

In 1989, the automobile division of Saab-Scania was restructured into an independent company, Saab Automobile AB. The American manufacturer General Motors (GM) took 50 percent ownership. Two well-known models to come out of this period were the Saab 9-3 and the Saab 9-5. Then, in 2000, GM exercised its option to acquire the remaining 50 percent. In 2010, GM sold Saab Automobile AB to the Dutch automobile manufacturer Spyker Cars N.V.^[3][4]

After many years establishing a sound engineering reputation and ultimately a luxury price tag, Saab failed to build its customer base beyond its niche following.^[5] After struggling to avoid insolvency throughout 2011, the company petitioned for bankruptcy following the failure of a Chinese consortium to complete a purchase of the company; the purchase had been blocked by the former owner GM, which opposed the transfer of technology and production rights to a Chinese company.^[6] On 13 June 2012, it was announced that a newly formed company called National Electric Vehicle Sweden (NEVS) had bought Saab Automobile's bankrupt estate.^[7] According to "Saab United", the first NEVS Saab 9-3 drove off its pre-production line on 19 September 2013.^[8] Full production restarted on 2 December 2013,^[9] initially the same petrol-powered 9-3 Aero sedans that were built before Saab went bankrupt, and intended to get the car manufacturer's supply chain re-established as it attempted development of a new line of NEVS-Saab products.^[10][11] NEVS lost its license to manufacture automobiles under the Saab name (which the namesake aerospace company still owns) in the summer of 2014 and later produced electric cars based on the Saab 9-3 but under its own new car designation "NEVS".^[12][13]

1. ^ "History and Background: Timeline, Video". US: Saab Group. 1 January 1980. Archived from the original on 23 February 2009. Retrieved 11 February 2009.
2. ^ "The History of Svenska Aeroplan Aktiebolaget or Saab". Saab history. Archived from the original on 15 September 2012. Retrieved 30 January 2010.
3. ^ Durrenberger, E. Paul (15 August 2017). Uncertain Times: Anthropological Approaches to Labor in a Neoliberal World. University Press of Colorado. ISBN 978-1-60732-631-1. Archived from the original on 3 September 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
4. ^ "Spyker Cars finalises the purchase of Saab" (PDF) (Press release). Spyker. 23 February 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 17 December 2013.
5. ^ "The People Who Will Miss Saab the Most; With the bankruptcy and impending doom facing Saab, we mourn with the certain, loyal fans that will miss the Swedish auto-maker". US: The Atlantic. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 November 2019. Retrieved 7 November 2019.
6. ^ "Saab Automobile Files for Bankruptcy" (Press release). Saab Automobile. 19 December 2011. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 20 December 2011..
7. ^ Zachariasson, Helena (13 June 2012). "Saab har fatt en kopare" [Saab's new owners will hire hundreds]. SVT (in Swedish). SE. Archived from the original on 23 October 2012. Retrieved 20 October 2012.
8. ^ "First Nevs Saab Rolls off Pre-Production Line" (Youtube) (video Posted). Trollhättan: Saab Group. 19 September 2013. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
9. ^ Lönnroth, Valdemar (28 November 2014), "Lööf på plats nar Nevs drar igang produktion" [Lööf in place when Nevs kicks off production], Ttela (in Swedish), SE, archived from the original on 28 November 2013.
10. ^ Gastelu, Gary (2 December 2013). "Saab restarts production". Fox News. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
11. ^ Stoll, John D. (2 December 2013). "Saab Automobile Is Poised to Resume Production". Gasgoo Automotive News. Archived from the original on 21 February 2015. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
12. ^ Saab carmaker NEVS granted creditor protection by court but loses right to use Saab name; Automotive News Europe, 29 August 2014, at europe.autonews.com Archived 15 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 8 November 2017
13. ^ "nevs.com: NEVS launches its new trademark". Archived from the original on 14 September 2016.

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11 June 1837 – The Broad Street Riot occurs in Boston, fueled by ethnic tensions between Yankees and Irish.

Broad Street Riot

1837 brawl between Irish Americans and firefighters in Boston, Massachusetts

The Broad Street Riot was a massive brawl that occurred in Boston, Massachusetts, on June 11, 1837, between Irish Americans and Yankee firefighters. An estimated 800 people were involved in the actual fighting, with at least 10,000 spectators egging them on. Nearby homes were sacked and vandalized, and the occupants beaten. Many on both sides were seriously injured, but no immediate deaths resulted from the violence. After raging for hours, the riot was quelled when Mayor Samuel Eliot called in the state cavalry, the National Lancers, to quell the riot.

In the wake of the riot, Boston's police and fire departments were established.

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12 June 1776 – The Virginia Declaration of Rights is adopted.

Virginia Declaration of Rights

1776 document which influenced the U.S. Declaration of Independence and Bill of Rights

The Virginia Declaration of Rights was drafted in 1776 to proclaim the inherent rights of men, including the right to reform or abolish "inadequate" government.^[2] It influenced a number of later documents, including the United States Declaration of Independence (1776) and the United States Bill of Rights (1789).^[3]

1. ^ "American Treasures of the Library of Congress". Library of Congress. August 2007. Retrieved May 2, 2019.
2. ^ "The Virginia Declaration of Rights; Article 3". Archived from the original on June 3, 2013. Retrieved May 1, 2015.
3. ^ McDonald, Robert (2008). "Mason, George (1725–1792)". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. p. 321. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n194. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.

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13 June 1996 – The Montana Freemen surrender after an 81-day standoff with FBI agents.

Montana Freemen

Christian Patriot group based in Montana

The Montana Freemen were an anti-government Christian Patriot militia based outside the town of Jordan, Montana, United States. The members of the group referred to their land as "Justus Township" and had declared their leaders and followers "sovereign citizens" no longer under the authority of any outside government. They became the center of public attention in 1996 when they engaged in a prolonged armed standoff with agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

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14 June 1777 – The Stars and Stripes is adopted by Congress as the Flag of the United States.

Flag of the United States

"American Flag" redirects here. For other uses, see American Flag (disambiguation).

The national flag of the United States, often referred to as the American flag or the U.S. flag, consists of thirteen horizontal stripes, alternating red and white, with a blue rectangle in the canton bearing fifty small, white, five-pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 U.S. states, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that won independence from Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War.^[2]

The flag was created as an item of military equipment to identify US ships and forts. It evolved gradually during early American history, and was not designed by any one person. The flag exploded in popularity in 1861 as a symbol of opposition to the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter. It came to symbolize the Union in the American Civil War; Union victory solidified its status as a national flag. Because of the country's emergence as a superpower in the 20th century, the flag is now among the most widely recognized symbols in the world.

Well-known nicknames for the flag include "the Stars and Stripes", "Old Glory", "the Star-Spangled Banner", and "the Red, White, and Blue". The Pledge of Allegiance and the holiday Flag Day are dedicated to it. The number of stars on the flag is increased as new states join the United States. The last adjustment was made in 1960, following the admission of Hawaii.

1. ^ https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/codification/executive-order/10834.html not all proportions are 10:19
2. ^ Warner, John (1998). "Senate Concurrent Resolution 61" (PDF). U.S. Government Printing Office. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 6, 2009. Retrieved April 5, 2014.

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15 June 2012 – Nik Wallenda becomes the first person to successfully tightrope walk directly over Niagara Falls.

Nik Wallenda

American acrobat (born 1979)

For the television show, see Nik Wallenda: Beyond Niagara.

Nikolas Wallenda (born January 24, 1979) is an American acrobat, aerialist, daredevil, high wire artist, and author. He is known for his high-wire performances without a safety net. He holds 11 Guinness World Records for various acrobatic feats, and is best known as the first person to walk a tightrope stretched directly over Niagara Falls. Wallenda walked 1,800 feet (550 m) on a steel cable over Masaya Volcano in Nicaragua, his longest walk, on March 4, 2020.

Wallenda is a 7th-generation member of The Flying Wallendas family, and he participated in various circus acts as a child. He made his professional tightrope walking debut at the age of 13, and he chose high-wire walking as his career in 1998 after joining family members in a seven-person pyramid on the wire. In 2001, he was part of the world's first eight-person high-wire pyramid. He performed with his family at various venues from 2002 to 2005, forming his own troupe in 2005. He performed with Bello Nock in 2007 and 2008 in a double version of the Wheel of Steel that he helped invent. In 2009, he set new personal bests for highest and longest tightrope walks, completing a total of 15 walks above 100 feet (30 m) in the air that year.

In 2008, while performing with Ringling Bros., Wallenda set Guinness World Records for longest and highest bicycle ride on a high-wire 250-foot-long (76 m) at 135 feet (41 m) above the ground in New Jersey. He nearly doubled the height record in 2010 to 260 feet (79 m). On the same day in 2010, he upped his personal best by tightrope walking over 2,000 feet (610 m) in a single performance. He set a world record in 2011 by performing on the Wheel of Death atop the 23 story Tropicana Casino and Resort. Later that year, he and his mother tightrope walked between the two towers of Condado Plaza Hotel in Puerto Rico. The feat was a re-creation of the one that killed Karl Wallenda, Nik's great-grandfather and primary source of inspiration. On June 10, 2011, Wallenda hung from a helicopter 250 feet (76 m) off the ground using only his toes to hold on.^[3] Some time after that, he walked on top of a turning Ferris wheel at the Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk in California.

Wallenda crossed Niagara Falls on June 15, 2012 on a live ABC special, following a two-year legal battle involving both sides of the Canada–United States border to gain approval. He was required to wear a safety harness for the first time in his life. A reality show aired on the Science Channel which followed his feats. In 2013, he released a memoir entitled Balance. He became the first person to high-wire walk across the Grand Canyon on June 23, 2013. The feat aired live on the Discovery Channel breaking rating records for the network. He followed that up with Skyscraper Live, a live Discovery special that aired on November 2, 2014, in which he completed two tightrope walks and set two new Guinness World Records: one for walking the steepest tightrope incline over 600 feet (180 m) up between two skyscrapers, and the other for the highest tightrope walk while blindfolded.

Wallenda is married with three children, and considers his Christian faith to be a central aspect of his life.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Today was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Chicago was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Nik Wallenda hangs from helicopter by his toes". June 10, 2011. Retrieved April 19, 2017.

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16 June 1940 – A Communist government is installed in Lithuania.

Lithuania

Country in the Baltic region of Europe

For other uses, see Lithuania (disambiguation).

"Litwa" redirects here. For other uses, see Litwa (disambiguation).

"Lietuva" redirects here. For newspapers under the name Lietuva, see Lietuva (newspaper).

Lithuania,^[b] officially the Republic of Lithuania,^[c] is a country in the Baltic region of Europe.^[d] It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and the Russian semi-exclave of Kaliningrad Oblast to the southwest, with a maritime border with Sweden to the west. Lithuania covers an area of 65,300 km² (25,200 sq mi), with a population of 2.89 million. Its capital and largest city is Vilnius; other major cities include Kaunas, Klaipėda, Šiauliai and Panevėžys. Lithuanians who are the titular nation and form the majority of the country's population, belong to the ethnolinguistic group of Balts and speak Lithuanian.

For millennia, the southeastern shores of the Baltic Sea were inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s, Lithuanian lands were united for the first time by Mindaugas, who formed the Kingdom of Lithuania on 6 July 1253. Subsequent expansion and consolidation resulted in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which by the 14th century was the largest country in Europe. In 1386, the Grand Duchy entered into a de facto personal union with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. The two realms were united into the bi-confederal Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, forming one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighbouring countries gradually dismantled it between 1772 and 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory.

Towards the end of World War I, Lithuania declared independence in 1918, founding the modern Republic of Lithuania. In World War II, Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union, then by Nazi Germany, before being reoccupied by the Soviets in 1944. Lithuanian armed resistance to the Soviet occupation lasted until the early 1950s. On 11 March 1990, a year before the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union, Lithuania became the first Soviet republic to break away when it proclaimed the restoration of its independence.

Lithuania is a developed country with a high income and an advanced economy ranking very high in Human Development Index. Lithuania ranks highly in digital infrastructure,^[25][26] press freedom and happiness.^[27] Lithuania is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, the Council of Europe, the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the Eurozone, the Nordic Investment Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Schengen Agreement, NATO, OECD and the World Trade Organization. It also participates in the Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB8) regional co-operation format.

1. ^ "Lithuania's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2019" (PDF). Constitute Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
2. ^ "Rodiklių duomenų bazė - Oficialiosios statistikos portalas". osp.stat.gov.lt.
3. ^ "Population by religious community indicated, municipalities (2021)" (in Lithuanian). Statistics Lithuania. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
4. ^ Kulikauskienė, Lina (2002). Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucija [The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania] (in Lithuanian). Native History, CD. ISBN 978-9986-9216-7-7.
5. ^ Veser, Ernst (23 September 1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept – A New Political System Model" (PDF) (in English and Chinese). Department of Education, School of Education, University of Cologne. pp. 39–60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2017. Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of the power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard he recognizes Duverger's pléiade as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87).
6. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. United States: University of California, San Diego. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
7. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns". French Politics. 3 (3). Palgrave Macmillan Journals: 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. ISSN 1476-3419. A pattern similar to the French case of compatible majorities alternating with periods of cohabitation emerged in Lithuania, where Talat-Kelpsa (2001) notes that the ability of the Lithuanian president to influence government formation and policy declined abruptly when he lost the sympathetic majority in parliament.
8. ^ "Eurostat celebrates Lithuania". 16 February 2018. Eurostat. Retrieved 28 January 2025.
9. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
10. ^ "Pradžia – Oficialiosios statistikos portalas". osp.stat.gov.lt. Retrieved 10 January 2025.
11. ^ ^{a b c d} "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Lithuania)". International Monetary Fund. 10 April 2024. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
12. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income". Eurostat. Archived from the original on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 18 January 2025.
13. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
14. ^ Office of the Chief Archivist of Lithuania (4 July 2011). "V-117 Dėl Dokumentų rengimo taisyklių patvirtinimo". e-seimas.lrs.lt (in Lithuanian). Seimas. Retrieved 6 December 2024.
15. ^ "Kaip trumpuoju būdu rašyti datą?". vlkk.lt (in Lithuanian). Commission of the Lithuanian Language. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2024.
16. ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2.
17. ^ "United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions". Unstats.un.org. Archived from the original on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
18. ^ "Lithuania - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU". op.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
19. ^ "Lithuania". Europe Direct Strasbourg. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
20. ^ Lehmann, Alex (29 December 2014). "Lithuania joins the Eurozone". European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
21. ^ Lagassé, Paul; Columbia University, eds. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-7876-5015-5
22. ^ "Lithuania". CIA World Factbook. 22 September 2021. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
23. ^ "Lithuania". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 3 July 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
24. ^ Bershidsky, Leonid (10 January 2017). "Why the Baltics Want to Move to Another Part of Europe". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
25. ^ "Lithuania – a growing cybersecurity hub for global businesses". Invest Lithuania. 17 November 2023.
26. ^ "Lithuania Rises in Global Digital Competitiveness Ranking, Leading the Baltics". lithuania.lt. 26 November 2024.
27. ^ "Lithuania ranked world's happiest country for young people". Lithuanian National Radio and Television. 21 March 2024.

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16 June 1940 – A Communist government is installed in Lithuania.

Lithuania

Country in the Baltic region of Europe

For other uses, see Lithuania (disambiguation).

"Litwa" redirects here. For other uses, see Litwa (disambiguation).

"Lietuva" redirects here. For newspapers under the name Lietuva, see Lietuva (newspaper).

Lithuania,^[b] officially the Republic of Lithuania,^[c] is a country in the Baltic region of Europe.^[d] It is one of three Baltic states and lies on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, bordered by Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and the Russian semi-exclave of Kaliningrad Oblast to the southwest, with a maritime border with Sweden to the west. Lithuania covers an area of 65,300 km² (25,200 sq mi), with a population of 2.89 million. Its capital and largest city is Vilnius; other major cities include Kaunas, Klaipėda, Šiauliai and Panevėžys. Lithuanians who are the titular nation and form the majority of the country's population, belong to the ethnolinguistic group of Balts and speak Lithuanian.

For millennia, the southeastern shores of the Baltic Sea were inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s, Lithuanian lands were united for the first time by Mindaugas, who formed the Kingdom of Lithuania on 6 July 1253. Subsequent expansion and consolidation resulted in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, which by the 14th century was the largest country in Europe. In 1386, the Grand Duchy entered into a de facto personal union with the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland. The two realms were united into the bi-confederal Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569, forming one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighbouring countries gradually dismantled it between 1772 and 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory.

Towards the end of World War I, Lithuania declared independence in 1918, founding the modern Republic of Lithuania. In World War II, Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union, then by Nazi Germany, before being reoccupied by the Soviets in 1944. Lithuanian armed resistance to the Soviet occupation lasted until the early 1950s. On 11 March 1990, a year before the formal dissolution of the Soviet Union, Lithuania became the first Soviet republic to break away when it proclaimed the restoration of its independence.

Lithuania is a developed country with a high income and an advanced economy ranking very high in Human Development Index. Lithuania ranks highly in digital infrastructure,^[25][26] press freedom and happiness.^[27] Lithuania is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, the Council of Europe, the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the Eurozone, the Nordic Investment Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Schengen Agreement, NATO, OECD and the World Trade Organization. It also participates in the Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB8) regional co-operation format.

1. ^ "Lithuania's Constitution of 1992 with Amendments through 2019" (PDF). Constitute Project. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 February 2021. Retrieved 30 August 2020.
2. ^ "Rodiklių duomenų bazė - Oficialiosios statistikos portalas". osp.stat.gov.lt.
3. ^ "Population by religious community indicated, municipalities (2021)" (in Lithuanian). Statistics Lithuania. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
4. ^ Kulikauskienė, Lina (2002). Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucija [The Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania] (in Lithuanian). Native History, CD. ISBN 978-9986-9216-7-7.
5. ^ Veser, Ernst (23 September 1997). "Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept – A New Political System Model" (PDF) (in English and Chinese). Department of Education, School of Education, University of Cologne. pp. 39–60. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 April 2021. Retrieved 23 August 2017. Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of the power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard he recognizes Duverger's pléiade as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87).
6. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (September 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). Graduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies. United States: University of California, San Diego. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2008. Retrieved 23 August 2017.
7. ^ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns". French Politics. 3 (3). Palgrave Macmillan Journals: 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. ISSN 1476-3419. A pattern similar to the French case of compatible majorities alternating with periods of cohabitation emerged in Lithuania, where Talat-Kelpsa (2001) notes that the ability of the Lithuanian president to influence government formation and policy declined abruptly when he lost the sympathetic majority in parliament.
8. ^ "Eurostat celebrates Lithuania". 16 February 2018. Eurostat. Retrieved 28 January 2025.
9. ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Archived from the original on 24 March 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
10. ^ "Pradžia – Oficialiosios statistikos portalas". osp.stat.gov.lt. Retrieved 10 January 2025.
11. ^ ^{a b c d} "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (Lithuania)". International Monetary Fund. 10 April 2024. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
12. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income". Eurostat. Archived from the original on 9 January 2025. Retrieved 18 January 2025.
13. ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
14. ^ Office of the Chief Archivist of Lithuania (4 July 2011). "V-117 Dėl Dokumentų rengimo taisyklių patvirtinimo". e-seimas.lrs.lt (in Lithuanian). Seimas. Retrieved 6 December 2024.
15. ^ "Kaip trumpuoju būdu rašyti datą?". vlkk.lt (in Lithuanian). Commission of the Lithuanian Language. Archived from the original on 1 February 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2024.
16. ^ Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John (eds.). Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2.
17. ^ "United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions". Unstats.un.org. Archived from the original on 30 August 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
18. ^ "Lithuania - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU". op.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
19. ^ "Lithuania". Europe Direct Strasbourg. Archived from the original on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
20. ^ Lehmann, Alex (29 December 2014). "Lithuania joins the Eurozone". European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Retrieved 16 December 2023.
21. ^ Lagassé, Paul; Columbia University, eds. (2000). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). New York, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-7876-5015-5
22. ^ "Lithuania". CIA World Factbook. 22 September 2021. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. Retrieved 24 January 2021.
23. ^ "Lithuania". Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 3 July 2021. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
24. ^ Bershidsky, Leonid (10 January 2017). "Why the Baltics Want to Move to Another Part of Europe". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
25. ^ "Lithuania – a growing cybersecurity hub for global businesses". Invest Lithuania. 17 November 2023.
26. ^ "Lithuania Rises in Global Digital Competitiveness Ranking, Leading the Baltics". lithuania.lt. 26 November 2024.
27. ^ "Lithuania ranked world's happiest country for young people". Lithuanian National Radio and Television. 21 March 2024.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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17 June 1843 – The Wairau Affray, the first serious clash of arms between Māori and British settlers in the New Zealand Wars, takes place.

Wairau Affray

1843 conflict between British settlers and indigenous Māori in New Zealand

The Wairau Affray of 17 June 1843,^[1] also called the Wairau Massacre and the Wairau Incident, was the first serious clash of arms between British settlers and Māori in New Zealand after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi and the only one to take place in the South Island.^[2] The incident was sparked when a magistrate and a representative of the New Zealand Company, who held a duplicitous deed to land in the Wairau Valley in Marlborough in the north of the South Island, led a group of European settlers to attempt to arrest Ngāti Toa chiefs Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata.^[3] Fighting broke out and 22 British settlers were killed, nine after their surrender. Four Māori were killed, including Te Rongo, who was Te Rangihaeata's wife.

The incident heightened fears among settlers of an armed Māori insurrection.^[4] It created the first major challenge for Governor Robert FitzRoy, who took up his posting in New Zealand six months later. FitzRoy investigated the incident and exonerated Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata, for which he was strongly criticised by settlers and the New Zealand Company. In 1944 a land claims commission investigation determined that the Wairau Valley had not been legally sold. The government was to pay compensation to the Rangitāne iwi, determined to be the original owners (until the early 1830s, when Te Rauparaha had driven them from the area).

1. ^ "Wairau Affray". Southern Cross. Vol. 2, no. 69. 10 August 1844. p. 2.
2. ^ King 2003, p. 182.
3. ^ Baker, Matiu (12 June 2015). "The Blenkinsop Indenture: Dirty deeds done dirt cheap!". Te Papa’s Blog. Retrieved 19 September 2023.
4. ^ Burns 1989, pp. 236–237.

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18 June 1887 – The Reinsurance Treaty between Germany and Russia is signed.

Reinsurance Treaty

Late 19th-century German-Russian agreement

English Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Reinsurance Treaty

For treaties in the reinsurance business, see Reinsurance.

The Reinsurance Treaty was a diplomatic agreement between the German Empire and the Russian Empire that was in effect from 1887 to 1890. The existence of the agreement was not known to the general public, and as such, was only known to a handful of officials in Berlin and St. Petersburg. The treaty played a critical role in German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's network of alliances and agreements, which aimed to keep the peace in Europe as well as maintaining Germany's economic, diplomatic and political dominance. It helped calm tensions between both Russia and Germany.

The treaty provided that both parties would remain neutral if the other became involved in a war with a third great power, with the exception of if Germany attacked France or if Russia attacked Austria-Hungary. Germany made concessions to Russia by changing its stance on Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia (now part of southern Bulgaria), agreeing that they were in the Russian sphere of influence and agreeing to support Russian action to keep the Black Sea as its own preserve. After Bismarck lost power in 1890, his enemies in the Foreign Ministry convinced the Kaiser that the treaty was too much in Russia's favor and should not be renewed. The cancellation, as with the treaty itself, was generally held from the public. Russia, however, had not wanted to terminate the alliance. Needing new allies, Russia opened negotiations with Germany's enemy France. The resulting Franco-Russian Alliance of 1891–1892 to 1917 rapidly began to take shape. Historians consider the new alliance a major disaster for Germany and one of the long-term causes of the First World War.^[1]

1. ^ George F. Kennan, "The Aftermath of the Reinsurance Treaty" in his The Decline of Bismarck's European Order (Princeton UP, 1981) pp. 343–358.

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19 June 1991 – The Soviet occupation of Hungary ends.

Hungary–Soviet Union relations

Bilateral relations

Hungarian–Soviet relations developed in three phases. After a short period when Béla Kun ruled a Soviet Republic, the Horthy era saw an almost complete break in relations until after World War II. The Yalta Conference, however, created conditions that ensured political, economic, and cultural interventions by the Soviet Union in internal Hungarian politics for the 45 years of the Cold War. Hungary became a member of the Warsaw Pact in 1955; since the end of World War II, Soviet troops were stationed in the country, intervening at the time of the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Starting in March 1990, the Soviet Army began leaving Hungary, with the last troops being withdrawn on June 19, 1991.

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20 June 1837 – Queen Victoria succeeds to the British throne.

Queen Victoria

Queen of the United Kingdom from 1837 to 1901

"Victoria of the United Kingdom" and "Victoria I" redirect here. For other people, see Victoria of the United Kingdom (disambiguation) and Queen Victoria (disambiguation). For other uses, see Victoria (disambiguation).

Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in January 1901. Her reign of 63 years and 216 days, which was longer than those of any of her predecessors, constituted the Victorian era. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India.

Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father's three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality.

Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their nine children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet "grandmother of Europe". After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. Victoria died at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight, at the age of 81. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.
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21 June 2006 – Pluto's newly discovered moons are officially named Nix and Hydra.

Pluto

Dwarf planet

This article is about the dwarf planet. For the deity, see Pluto (mythology). For other uses, see Pluto (disambiguation).

Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt, a ring of bodies beyond the orbit of Neptune. It is the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive known object to directly orbit the Sun. It is the largest known trans-Neptunian object by volume by a small margin, but is less massive than Eris. Like other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is made primarily of ice and rock and is much smaller than the inner planets. Pluto has roughly one-sixth the mass of the Moon and one-third its volume. Originally considered a planet, its classification was changed when astronomers adopted a new definition of planet.

Pluto has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit, ranging from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.5 to 7.3 billion kilometres; 2.8 to 4.6 billion miles) from the Sun. Light from the Sun takes 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its orbital distance of 39.5 AU (5.91 billion km; 3.67 billion mi). Pluto's eccentric orbit periodically brings it closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance prevents them from colliding.

Pluto has five known moons: Charon, the largest, whose diameter is just over half that of Pluto; Styx; Nix; Kerberos; and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter of their orbits does not lie within either body, and they are tidally locked. New Horizons was the first spacecraft to visit Pluto and its moons, making a flyby on July 14, 2015, and taking detailed measurements and observations.

Pluto was discovered in 1930 by Clyde W. Tombaugh, making it the first known object in the Kuiper belt. It was immediately hailed as the ninth planet. However,^[15]: 27 its planetary status was questioned when it was found to be much smaller than expected. These doubts increased following the discovery of additional objects in the Kuiper belt starting in the 1990s, particularly the more massive scattered disk object Eris in 2005. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) formally redefined the term planet to exclude dwarf planets such as Pluto. Many planetary astronomers, however, continue to consider Pluto and other dwarf planets to be planets.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "Plutonian". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference TOP2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k} Cite error: The named reference Pluto Fact Sheet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpl-ssd-horizons was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ ^{a b} Nimmo, Francis; et al. (2017). "Mean radius and shape of Pluto and Charon from New Horizons images". Icarus. 287: 12–29. arXiv:1603.00821. Bibcode:2017Icar..287...12N. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2016.06.027. S2CID 44935431.
6. ^ Stern, S.A.; Grundy, W.; McKinnon, W.B.; Weaver, H.A.; Young, L.A. (2017). "The Pluto System After New Horizons". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 2018: 357–392. arXiv:1712.05669. Bibcode:2018ARA&A..56..357S. doi:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051935. ISSN 0066-4146. S2CID 119072504.
7. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Stern2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Brozovic2024 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Seligman, Courtney. "Rotation Period and Day Length". Archived from the original on September 29, 2018. Retrieved June 12, 2021.
10. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Archinal was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference AstDys-Pluto was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference jpldata was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Amos, Jonathan (July 23, 2015). "New Horizons: Pluto may have 'nitrogen glaciers'". BBC News. Archived from the original on October 27, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2015. It could tell from the passage of sunlight and radiowaves through the Plutonian "air" that the pressure was only about 10 microbars at the surface
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference Physorg April 19, 2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference T&M was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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22 June 1918 – The Hammond Circus Train Wreck kills 86 and injures 127 near Hammond, Indiana.

Hammond Circus Train Wreck

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23 June 1926 – The College Board administers the first SAT exam.

SAT

Standardized test used for U.S. college admissions

This article is about the college admission test in the United States. For the exams in England colloquially known as SATs, see National Curriculum assessment. For other uses, see SAT (disambiguation).

The SAT (/ˌɛsˌeɪˈtiː/ ^ⓘ ess-ay-TEE) is a standardized test widely used for college admissions in the United States. Since its debut in 1926, its name and scoring have changed several times. For much of its history, it was called the Scholastic Aptitude Test and had two components, Verbal and Mathematical, each of which was scored on a range from 200 to 800. Later it was called the Scholastic Assessment Test, then the SAT I: Reasoning Test, then the SAT Reasoning Test, then simply the SAT.

The SAT is wholly owned, developed, and published by the College Board and is administered by the Educational Testing Service.^[5] The test is intended to assess students' readiness for college. Historically, starting around 1937, the tests offered under the SAT banner also included optional subject-specific SAT Subject Tests, which were called SAT Achievement Tests until 1993 and then were called SAT II: Subject Tests until 2005; these were discontinued after June 2021.^[6][7] Originally designed not to be aligned with high school curricula,^[8] several adjustments were made for the version of the SAT introduced in 2016. College Board president David Coleman added that he wanted to make the test reflect more closely what students learn in high school with the new Common Core standards.^[9]

Many students prepare for the SAT using books, classes, online courses, and tutoring, which are offered by a variety of companies and organizations. In the past, the test was taken using paper forms. Starting in March 2023 for international test-takers and March 2024 for those within the U.S., the testing is administered using a computer program called Bluebook.^[10][11] The test was also made adaptive, customizing the questions that are presented to the student based on how they perform on questions asked earlier in the test, and shortened from three hours to two hours and 14 minutes.^[1][12]

While a considerable amount of research has been done on the SAT, many questions and misconceptions remain.^[13][14] Outside of college admissions, the SAT is also used by researchers studying human intelligence in general and intellectual precociousness in particular,^[15][16][17] and by some employers in the recruitment process.^[18][19][20]

1. ^ ^{a b} "How the SAT is Structured". College Board. Archived from the original on March 6, 2024. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
2. ^ Goldberg, Emma (September 27, 2020). "Put Down Your No. 2 Pencils. But Not Your Face Mask". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 4, 2020. Retrieved December 4, 2020.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference test takers was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Fees And Costs". The College Board. Archived from the original on October 10, 2014. Retrieved October 13, 2014.
5. ^ "How the SAT Is Structured". College Board SAT.
6. ^ "College Board Will No Longer Offer SAT Subject Tests or SAT with Essay". College Board Blog. Archived from the original on August 21, 2023. Retrieved February 14, 2021.
7. ^ Hartocollis, Anemona; Taylor, Kate; Saul, Stephanie (January 20, 2021). "Retooling During Pandemic, the SAT Will Drop Essay and Subject Tests". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on December 28, 2021. Retrieved February 14, 2021.
8. ^ Baird, Katherine (2012). Trapped in Mediocrity: Why Our Schools Aren't World-Class and What We Can Do About It. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers. "And a separate process that began in 1926 was complete by 1942: the much easier SAT—a test not aligned to any particular curriculum and thus better suited to a nation where high school students did not take a common curriculum—replaced the old college boards as the nations's college entrance exam. This broke the once tight link between academic coursework and college admission, a break that remains to this day."
9. ^ Lewin, Tamar (March 5, 2014). "A New SAT Aims to Realign With Schoolwork". The New York Times. Archived from the original on May 13, 2014. Retrieved May 14, 2014. He said he also wanted to make the test reflect more closely what students did in high school and, perhaps most important, rein in the intense coaching and tutoring on how to take the test that often gave affluent students an advantage.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Thompson-2022 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Goldstein, Dana (March 8, 2024). "No More No. 2 Pencils: The SAT Goes Fully Digital". The New York Times. Archived from the original on March 8, 2024. Retrieved March 10, 2024.
12. ^ "What is Digital SAT Adaptive Testing?". College Board Blog. August 14, 2023. Archived from the original on March 21, 2024.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference Frey-2019 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ Hambrick, David C.; Chabris, Christopher (April 14, 2014). "Yes, IQ Really Matters". Science. Slate. Archived from the original on August 31, 2021. Retrieved August 31, 2021.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference O'Boyle-2005 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ Cite error: The named reference Haier-2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
17. ^ Cite error: The named reference Lubinsky-2018 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Weber-2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ Cite error: The named reference Treu-2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
20. ^ Cite error: The named reference Dewan-2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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24 June 1949 – The first television western, Hopalong Cassidy, is aired on NBC starring William Boyd.

Hopalong Cassidy

Fictional cowboy hero

For other uses, see Hopalong Cassidy (disambiguation).

Fictional character

Hopalong Cassidy is a fictional cowboy hero created in 1904 by the author Clarence E. Mulford, who wrote a series of short stories and novels based on the character. Mulford portrayed the character as rude, dangerous, and rough-talking. He was shot in the leg during a gun fight, causing him to walk with a little "hop", hence the nickname.

From the 1930s to the 1950s, the character became indelibly associated with actor William Boyd, who portrayed Cassidy first in a series of sixty-six films from 1935 to 1948, then in children-oriented radio and TV series, both of which lasted until 1952. Boyd's portrayal of Cassidy had little in common with the literary character, being instead a clean-cut, sarsaparilla-drinking hero who never shot first. The plots of the film, radio and TV series were generally not taken from Mulford's writings.

At the peak of the character's popularity in the early 1950s, he spawned enormous amounts of merchandise, as well as a comic strip, additional novels by Louis L'Amour (writing as Tex Burns), and even a short-lived amusement park, "Hoppyland", in Venice, Los Angeles.

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25 June 1975 – Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declares a state of internal emergency in India.

The Emergency (India)

1975–1977 state of emergency in India under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi

The Emergency in India was a 21-month period from 1975 to 1977 when Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a state of emergency across the country by citing internal and external threats to the country.^[1]

Officially issued by President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed under Article 352 of the Constitution because of a prevailing "Internal Disturbance", the Emergency was in effect from 25 June 1975 and ended on 21 March 1977. The order bestowed upon the prime minister the authority to rule by decree, allowing elections to be cancelled and civil liberties to be suspended. For much of the Emergency, most of Gandhi's political opponents were imprisoned and the press was censored. More than 100,000 political opponents, journalists and dissenters were imprisoned by the Gandhi regime.^[1] During this time, a mass campaign for vasectomy was spearheaded by her son Sanjay Gandhi.

The final decision to impose an emergency was proposed by Indira Gandhi, agreed upon by the President of India, and ratified by the Cabinet and the Parliament from July to August 1975. It was based on the rationale that there were imminent internal and external threats to the Indian state.^[2][3]

1. ^ ^{a b} Bose, Sugata; Jalal, Ayesha (2024), "The Indian Emergency (1975–1977) in Historical Perspective", When Democracy Breaks, Oxford University Press, pp. 221–236, doi:10.1093/oso/9780197760789.003.0008, ISBN 978-0-19-776078-9
2. ^ "Interview with Indira Gandhi". Interview relecast through India times. TV Eye. 18 December 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2018.
3. ^ "Recalling the Emergency years". The Indian Express. 29 June 2015. Retrieved 14 June 2018.

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26 June 1906 – The first Grand Prix motor racing event held

1906 French Grand Prix

Motor race held at Le Mans

Motor car race

The 1906 Grand Prix de l'Automobile Club de France, commonly known as the 1906 French Grand Prix, was a motor race held on 26 and 27 June 1906, on closed public roads outside the city of Le Mans. The Grand Prix was organised by the Automobile Club de France (ACF) at the prompting of the French automobile industry as an alternative to the Gordon Bennett races, which limited each competing country's number of entries regardless of the size of its industry. France had the largest automobile industry in Europe at the time, and in an attempt to better reflect this the Grand Prix had no limit to the number of entries by any particular country. The ACF chose a 103.18-kilometre (64.11 mi) circuit, composed primarily of dust roads sealed with tar, which would be lapped six times on both days by each competitor, a combined race distance of 1,238.16 kilometres (769.36 mi). Lasting for more than 12 hours overall, the race was won by Ferenc Szisz driving for the Renault team. FIAT driver Felice Nazzaro finished second, and Albert Clément was third in a Clément-Bayard.

Paul Baras of Brasier set the fastest lap of the race on his first lap. He held on to the lead until the third lap, when Szisz took over first position, defending it to the finish. Hot conditions melted the road tar, which the cars kicked up into the faces of the drivers, blinding them and making the racing treacherous. Punctures were common; tyre manufacturer Michelin introduced a detachable rim with a tyre already affixed, which could be quickly swapped onto a car after a puncture, saving a significant amount of time over manually replacing the tyre. This helped Nazzaro pass Clément on the second day, as the FIAT—unlike the Clément-Bayard—made use of the rims.

Renault's victory contributed to an increase in sales for the French manufacturer in the years following the race. Despite being the second to carry the title, the race has become known as the first Grand Prix. The success of the 1906 French Grand Prix prompted the ACF to run the Grand Prix again the following year, and the German automobile industry to organise the Kaiserpreis, the forerunner to the German Grand Prix, in 1907.

1. ^ Hodges (1967), pp. 2–3.

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26 June 2007 – Tony Blair resigns as British Prime Minister, a position he had held since 1997.

Tony Blair

Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007

"Anthony Blair" redirects here. For other uses, see Anthony Blair (disambiguation) and Tony Blair (disambiguation).

Sir Anthony Charles Lynton Blair (born 6 May 1953) is a British politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1997 to 2007 and Leader of the Labour Party from 1994 to 2007. He was Leader of the Opposition from 1994 to 1997 and held various shadow cabinet posts from 1987 to 1994. Blair was Member of Parliament (MP) for Sedgefield from 1983 to 2007, and was special envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East from 2007 to 2015. He is the second-longest-serving prime minister in post-war British history after Margaret Thatcher, the longest-serving Labour politician to have held the office, and the first and only person to date to lead the party to three consecutive general election victories. Blair founded the Tony Blair Institute for Global Change in 2016, and currently serves as its Executive Chairman.

Blair attended the independent school Fettes College, studied law at St John's College, Oxford, and qualified as a barrister. He became involved in the Labour Party and was elected to the House of Commons in 1983 for the Sedgefield constituency in County Durham. As a backbencher, Blair supported moving the party to the political centre of British politics. He was appointed to Neil Kinnock's shadow cabinet in 1988 and was appointed shadow home secretary by John Smith in 1992. Following Smith's death in 1994, Blair won a leadership election to succeed him. As leader, Blair began a historic rebranding of the party, which became known as "New Labour".

Blair became the youngest prime minister of the 20th century after his party won a landslide victory of 418 seats (the largest in its history) in the 1997 general election, bringing an end to 18 years in the opposition. It was the first victory for the Labour Party in nearly 23 years, the last one being in October 1974.

During his first term, Blair enacted constitutional reforms and significantly increased public spending on healthcare and education while also introducing controversial market-based reforms in these areas. In addition, Blair saw the introduction of a minimum wage, tuition fees for higher education, constitutional reform such as devolution in Scotland and Wales, an extensive expansion of LGBT+ rights in the UK, and significant progress in the Northern Ireland peace process with the passing of the landmark Good Friday Agreement. On foreign policy, Blair oversaw British interventions in Kosovo in 1999 and Sierra Leone in 2000, which were generally perceived to be successful.

Blair won a second term after Labour won a second landslide victory in the 2001 general election. Three months into his second term, Blair's premiership was shaped by the 9/11 terrorist attacks, resulting in the start of the war on terror. Blair supported the foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration by ensuring that the British Armed Forces participated in the War in Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban, destroy al-Qaeda, and capture Osama bin Laden. Blair supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq and had the British Armed Forces participate in the Iraq War, on the false beliefs that Saddam Hussein's regime possessed weapons of mass destruction and developed ties with al-Qaeda. The invasion of Iraq was particularly controversial, as it attracted widespread public opposition and 139 of Blair's own MPs opposed it. As a result, he faced criticism over the policy itself and the circumstances of the decision. The Iraq Inquiry report of 2016 gave a damning assessment of Blair's role in the Iraq War. As the casualties of the Iraq War mounted, Blair was accused of misleading Parliament, and his popularity dropped dramatically.

Blair won a third term after Labour won a third election victory in 2005, in part thanks to the UK's strong economic performance, but with a substantially reduced majority, due to the UK's involvement in the Iraq War. During his third term, Blair pushed for more systemic public sector reform and brokered a settlement to restore powersharing to Northern Ireland. He had a surge in popularity at the time of terrorist bombings of London of July 2005, but by the Spring of 2006 faced significant difficulties, most notably with scandals over failures by the Home Office to deport illegal immigrants. Amid the Cash-for-Honours scandal, Blair was interviewed three times as prime minister, though only as a witness and not under caution. The Afghanistan and Iraq wars continued, and in 2006, Blair announced he would resign within a year. He resigned the party leadership on 24 June 2007 and as prime minister on 27 June, and was succeeded by Gordon Brown, his chancellor.

After leaving office, Blair gave up his seat and was appointed special envoy of the Quartet on the Middle East, a diplomatic post he held until 2015. He has been the executive chairman of the Tony Blair Institute for Global Change since 2016 and has made occasional political interventions, and has been a key influence on Keir Starmer. In 2009, Blair was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by George W. Bush. He was made a Knight Companion of the Garter by Queen Elizabeth II in 2022. At various points in his premiership, Blair was among both the most popular and most unpopular politicians in British history. As prime minister, he achieved the highest recorded approval ratings during his first few years in office but also one of the lowest ratings during and after the Iraq War.^[1][2][3][4] Blair is usually rated as above average in historical rankings and public opinion of British prime ministers.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Seldon, Anthony (10 August 2015). "Why is Tony Blair so unpopular?". BBC News. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
2. ^ "Tony Blair: a controversial knight". The Week. 7 January 2022. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
3. ^ Wintour, Patrick (20 March 2023). "How Iraq war destroyed UK's trust in politicians and left Labour in turmoil". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
4. ^ Farand, Chloe (1 August 2017). "A huge number of Britons want to see Tony Blair tried for Iraq war crimes". The Independent. Archived from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.

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28 June 1098 – Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul.

First Crusade

1096–1099 Christian re-conquest of the Holy Land

For other uses, see The First Crusade (disambiguation).

The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the Middle Ages. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic rule. While Jerusalem had been under Muslim rule for hundreds of years, by the 11th century the Seljuk takeover of the region threatened local Christian populations, pilgrimages from the West, and the Byzantine Empire itself. The earliest initiative for the First Crusade began in 1095 when Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos requested military support from the Council of Piacenza in the empire's conflict with the Seljuk-led Turks. This was followed later in the year by the Council of Clermont, during which Pope Urban II supported the Byzantine request for military assistance and also urged faithful Christians to undertake an armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem.

This call was met with an enthusiastic popular response across all social classes in western Europe. Mobs of predominantly poor Christians numbering in the thousands, led by Peter the Hermit, a French priest, were the first to respond. What has become known as the People's Crusade passed through Germany and indulged in wide-ranging anti-Jewish activities, including the Rhineland massacres. On leaving Byzantine-controlled territory in Anatolia, they were annihilated in a Turkish ambush led by the Seljuk Kilij Arslan I at the Battle of Civetot in October 1096.

In what has become known as the Princes' Crusade, members of the high nobility and their followers embarked in late-summer 1096 and arrived at Constantinople between November and April the following year. This was a large feudal host led by notable Western European princes: southern French forces under Raymond IV of Toulouse and Adhemar of Le Puy; men from Upper and Lower Lorraine led by Godfrey of Bouillon and his brother Baldwin of Boulogne; Italo-Norman forces led by Bohemond of Taranto and his nephew Tancred; as well as various contingents consisting of northern French and Flemish forces under Robert Curthose of Normandy, Stephen of Blois, Hugh of Vermandois, and Robert II of Flanders. In total and including non-combatants, the forces are estimated to have numbered as many as 100,000.

The crusader forces gradually arrived in Anatolia. With Kilij Arslan absent, a Frankish attack and Byzantine naval assault during the Siege of Nicaea in June 1097 resulted in an initial crusader victory. In July, the crusaders won the Battle of Dorylaeum, fighting Turkish lightly armoured mounted archers. After a difficult march through Anatolia, the crusaders began the Siege of Antioch, capturing the city in June 1098. Jerusalem, then under the Fatimids, was reached in June 1099 and the Siege of Jerusalem resulted in the city being taken by assault from 7 June to 15 July 1099, during which its residents were ruthlessly massacred. A Fatimid counterattack was repulsed later that year at the Battle of Ascalon, ending the First Crusade. Afterwards, the majority of the crusaders returned home.

Four Crusader states were established in the Holy Land: the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the County of Edessa, the Principality of Antioch, and the County of Tripoli. The Crusader presence remained in the region in some form until the loss of the last major Crusader stronghold in the Siege of Acre in 1291. After this loss of all Crusader territory in the Levant, there were no further substantive attempts to recover the Holy Land.

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1. ^ Asbridge 2012, p. 42, The Call of the Cross.

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29 June 1974 – Isabel Perón is sworn in as the first female President of Argentina.

Isabel Martínez de Perón

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30 June 1953 – The first Chevrolet Corvette rolls off the assembly line in Flint, Michigan.

Chevrolet Corvette

American sports car by the Chevrolet division of General Motors (GM)

Motor vehicle

The Chevrolet Corvette is a line of American two-door, two-seater sports cars manufactured and marketed by General Motors under the Chevrolet marque since 1953.^[1][2] Throughout eight generations, indicated sequentially as C1 to C8, the Corvette is noted for its performance, distinctive styling, lightweight fiberglass or composite bodywork, and competitive pricing. The Corvette has had domestic mass-produced two-seater competitors fielded by American Motors, Ford, and Chrysler; it is the only one continuously produced by a United States auto manufacturer.^[3] It serves as Chevrolet's halo car.^[4]

In 1953, GM executives accepted a suggestion by Myron Scott, then the assistant director of the Public Relations department, to name the company's new sports car after the corvette, a small, maneuverable warship.^[5] Initially, a relatively modest, lightweight 6‑cylinder convertible, subsequent introductions of V8 engines, competitive chassis innovations, and rear mid-engined layout have gradually moved the Corvette upmarket into the supercar class. In 1963, the second generation was introduced in coupe and convertible styles. The first three Corvette generations (1953–1983) employed body-on-frame construction, and since the C4 generation, introduced in 1983 as an early 1984 model, Corvettes have used GM's unibody Y‑body platform.^[6] All Corvettes used front mid-engine configuration for seven generations, through 2019, and transitioned to a rear mid-engined layout with the C8 generation.^[7]

Initially manufactured in Flint, Michigan, and St. Louis, Missouri, the Corvette has been produced in Bowling Green, Kentucky, since 1981, which is also the location of the National Corvette Museum. The Corvette has become widely known as "America's Sports Car."^[8] Automotive News wrote that after being featured in the early 1960s television show Route 66, "the Corvette became synonymous with freedom and adventure," ultimately becoming both "the most successful concept car in history and the most popular sports car in history."^[9]

1. ^ "Site Maintenance". www.chevrolet.com.
2. ^ Miller, Ray; Embree, Glenn (1975). The Real Corvette: An Illustrated History of Chevrolet's Sports Car. Evergreen Press. ISBN 978-0913056066.
3. ^ For example, the AMC AMX, first-generation Thunderbird, Ford GT, and Dodge Viper. See: Dunton, Pete (March 16, 2012). "1968 AMC AMX – the Poor Man's Corvette". oldcarmemories.com. Retrieved May 3, 2024.; Gulett, Mike (March 23, 2015). "The American Motors AMX Is a Terrific Sports Car – Or Is It A Muscle Car?". mycarquest.com. Retrieved May 3, 2024.; "Corvette and Thunderbird: The Beginning". aldanamerican.com. 12 January 2021. Retrieved May 3, 2024.; and Gillies, Mark (November 1, 2005). "2006 Chevrolet Corvette Z06 vs. Ford GT vs. Dodge Viper SRT10 Coupe". Motor Trend. Retrieved May 3, 2024.
4. ^ Oldham, Scott (July 24, 2018). "25 Corvette facts that every enthusiast should know". Hagerty. Retrieved June 14, 2022.
5. ^ Falconer, Tom (2003). The Complete Corvette. Crestline. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-7603-1474-6. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
6. ^ McNessor, Mike (August 24, 2020). "How the Corvette's chassis evolved over more than 60 years". RK Motors Charlotte.
7. ^ Capparella, Joey (April 11, 2019). "The Mid-Engined 2020 Chevrolet Corvette C8 Is Real, GM Confesses, and It Will Debut July 18". Car and Driver. Retrieved April 11, 2019.
8. ^ Bryant, Thos L. (November 6, 2012). "America's Sports Car". Road & Track.
9. ^ Burton, Jerry (October 31, 2011). "Corvette: A pop culture classic". Automotive News. Retrieved May 31, 2022.

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1 July 1863 – American Civil War: The Battle of Gettysburg begins.

Battle of Gettysburg

1863 battle of the American Civil War

For other uses, see Battle of Gettysburg (disambiguation).

The Battle of Gettysburg (locally /ˈɡɛtɪsbɜːrɡ/ ^ⓘ)^[14] was a three-day battle in the American Civil War, which was fought between the Union and Confederate armies between July 1 and July 3, 1863, in and around Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The battle, won by the Union, is widely considered the Civil War's turning point, leading to an ultimate victory of the Union and the preservation of the nation. The Battle of Gettysburg was the bloodiest battle of both the Civil War and of any battle in American military history, claiming over 50,000 combined casualties.^[15] Union Major General George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North and forcing his retreat.^{[fn 1][16]}

After his success in the Battle of Chancellorsville in Spotsylvania County, Virginia in May 1863, Lee led his Confederate forces through Shenandoah Valley to begin the Gettysburg Campaign, his second attempt to invade the North. With Lee's army in high spirits, he intended to shift the focus of the summer campaign from war-ravaged Northern Virginia in the hopes of penetrating as far as Harrisburg or Philadelphia, which he hoped would convince northern politicians to end the war. President Abraham Lincoln initially prodded Major General Joseph Hooker to lead his troops in pursuing Lee. But Lincoln relieved Hooker of his command just three days before the Battle of Gettysburg commenced, replacing him with Meade.

On July 1, 1863, as Lee's forces moved on Gettysburg in the hopes of destroying the Union army, the two armies initially collided, and the battle commenced. Low ridges to the northwest of Gettysburg were initially defended by a Union cavalry division under Brigadier General John Buford, and soon reinforced with two corps of Union infantry. Two large Confederate corps assaulted them from the northwest and north, however, collapsing the hastily developed Union lines, leading them to retreat through the streets of Gettysburg to the hills just south of the city.^[17] On the second day of battle, on July 2, the Union line was laid out in a defensive formation resembling a fishhook. In the late afternoon, Lee launched a heavy assault on the Union's left flank, leading to fierce fighting at Little Round Top, the Wheatfield, Devil's Den, and the Peach Orchard. On the Union's right flank, Confederate demonstrations escalated into full-scale assaults on Culp's Hill and Cemetery Hill. Despite incurring significant losses, Union forces held their lines.

On the third day of battle, July 3, fighting resumed on Culp's Hill, and cavalry battles raged to the east and south of Gettysburg. Pickett's Charge featured the main military engagement, a dramatic Confederate infantry assault of approximately 12,000 Confederates troops, who attacked the center of the Union line at Cemetery Ridge, which was successfully repelled by Union rifle and artillery fire, leading to great Confederate losses. The following day, on the Fourth of July, Lee led his Confederate troops on the torturous retreat from the North. Between 46,000 and 51,000 soldiers from both armies were casualties in the three-day Battle of Gettysburg, representing both the most deadly battle in the Civil War and all of U.S. history.

On November 19, Lincoln traveled to Gettysburg, where he spoke at a ceremony dedicating Gettysburg National Cemetery, which honored the fallen Union soldiers and redefined the purpose of the Civil War in his famed Gettysburg Address, a 271-word address that has endured as one of the most famous speeches in American history.^[18][19]

1. ^ Coddington, p. 573. See the discussion regarding historians' judgment on whether Gettysburg should be considered a decisive victory.
2. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, pages 155–168 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 2, pages 283–291 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
4. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, page 151 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
5. ^ Coddington, p. 673, references the official number of the Union Army forces but says the number could have been in the "neighborhood" of 115,000. Busey and Martin, p. 125: "Engaged strength" at the battle was 93,921. Eicher, p. 503, gives a similar number of 93,500. Sears, p. 539 quotes the official number of just over 104,000 but with reinforcements of another 8,000 men about to arrive.
6. ^ "Gettysburg Staff Ride" (PDF). army.mil. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
7. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 260, state that Confederate "engaged strength" at the battle was 71,699; McPherson, p. 648, lists the Confederate strength at the start of the campaign as 75,000, while Eicher, p. 503 gives a lower number of 70,200. Noting that Confederate returns often did not include officers, Coddington, p. 676 states that estimated Confederate strength of 75,000 is "a conservative one". Confederate Captain John Esten Cooke in A Life of Gen. Robert E. Lee, New York: D. Appleton, 1871, p. 328, gives the number of the entire Confederate force "at about eighty thousand". Sears, p. 149 states that eyewitnesses observed the Confederate force to be about 100,000 but, although Meade used this in making his battle plans, it was an overcount of about 20 percent.
8. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 1, page 187 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
9. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 125.
10. ^ Busey and Martin, p. 260, cite 23,231 total (4,708 killed;12,693 wounded;5,830 captured/missing).
    See the section on casualties for a discussion of alternative Confederate casualty estimates, which have been cited as high as 28,000.
11. ^ Official Records, Series I, Volume XXVII, Part 2, pages 338–346 Archived July 24, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
12. ^ Wynstra, p. 81
13. ^ Symonds, pp. 53, 57
14. ^ Robert D. Quigley, Civil War Spoken Here: A Dictionary of Mispronounced People, Places and Things of the 1860s (Collingswood, NJ: C. W. Historicals, 1993), p. 68. ISBN 0-9637745-0-6.
15. ^ "Gettysburg" at Battlefields
16. ^ Rawley, p. 147; Sauers, p. 827; Gallagher, Lee and His Army, p. 83; McPherson, p. 665; Eicher, p. 550. Gallagher and McPherson cite the combination of Gettysburg and Vicksburg as the turning point. Eicher uses the arguably related expression, "High-water mark of the Confederacy".
17. ^ Eicher, David J. (2001), The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 515–517, ISBN 978-0-684-84944-7
18. ^ Conant, Sean (2015). The Gettysburg Address: Perspectives on Lincoln's Greatest Speech. New York: Oxford University Press. p. ix. ISBN 978-0-19-022745-6.
19. ^ Holsinger, M. Paul (1999). War and American Popular Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-313-29908-7.

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