This day in .....

25 May 1925 – Scopes Trial: John T. Scopes is indicted for teaching human evolution in Tennessee.

John T. Scopes

American schoolteacher and Scopes Trial figure (1900–1970)

John Thomas Scopes (August 3, 1900 – October 21, 1970) was a teacher in Dayton, Tennessee, who was charged on May 5, 1925, with violating Tennessee's Butler Act, which prohibited the teaching of human evolution in Tennessee schools. He was tried in a case known as the Scopes Trial, and was found guilty and fined $100 (equivalent to $1,669 in 2022).

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26 May 1868 – The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson ends with his acquittal by one vote.

Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

1868 impeachment of Andrew Johnson, 17th US president

The impeachment of Andrew Johnson was initiated on February 24, 1868, when the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution to impeach Andrew Johnson, the 17th president of the United States, for "high crimes and misdemeanors". The alleged high crimes and misdemeanors were afterwards specified in eleven articles of impeachment adopted by the House on March 2 and 3, 1868. The primary charge against Johnson was that he had violated the Tenure of Office Act. Specifically, that he had acted to remove from office Edwin Stanton and to replace him with Brevet Major General Lorenzo Thomas as secretary of war ad interim. The Tenure of Office had been passed by Congress in March 1867 over Johnson's veto with the primary intent of protecting Stanton from being fired without the Senate's consent. Stanton often sided with the Radical Republican faction and did not have a good relationship with Johnson.

Johnson was the first United States president to be impeached. After the House formally adopted the articles of impeachment, they forwarded them to the United States Senate for adjudication. The trial in the Senate began on March 5, with Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase presiding. On May 16, the Senate voted against convicting Johnson on one of the articles, with its 35–19 vote in favor of conviction falling one vote short of the necessary two-thirds majority. A 10-day recess of the Senate trial was called before reconvening to convict him on additional articles. On May 26, the Senate voted against convicting the president on two more articles by margins identical to the first vote. After this, the trial was adjourned sine die without votes being held on the remaining eight articles of impeachment.

The impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson had important political implications for the balance of federal legislative-executive power. It maintained the principle that Congress should not remove the president from office simply because its members disagreed with him over policy, style, and administration of the office. It also resulted in diminished presidential influence on public policy and overall governing power, fostering a system of governance which future-President Woodrow Wilson referred to in the 1880s as "Congressional Government".

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27 May 1996 – First Chechen War: Russian President Boris Yeltsin meets with Chechnyan rebels for the first time and negotiates a cease-fire.

First Chechen War

1994–96 invasion of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria by the Russian Federation

The First Chechen War, also known as the First Chechen Campaign,^{[b][20][21][22]} or the First Russian-Chechen war, was a war of independence which the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria waged against the Russian Federation from December 1994 to August 1996. The first war was preceded by the Russian Intervention in Ichkeria, in which Russia tried covertly to overthrow the Ichkerian government. After the initial campaign of 1994–1995, culminating in the devastating Battle of Grozny, Russian federal forces attempted to seize control of the mountainous area of Chechnya, but they faced heavy resistance from Chechen guerrillas and raids on the flatlands. Despite Russia's overwhelming advantages in firepower, manpower, weaponry, artillery, combat vehicles, airstrikes and air support, the resulting widespread demoralization of federal forces and the almost universal opposition to the conflict by the Russian public led Boris Yeltsin's government to declare a ceasefire with the Chechens in 1996, and finally, it signed a peace treaty in 1997.

The official Russian estimate of Russian military deaths was 5,732, but according to other estimates, the number of Russian military deaths was as high as 14,000.^[23] According to various estimates, the number of Chechen military deaths was approximately 3,000, the number of Chechen civilian deaths was between 30,000 and 100,000. Over 200,000 Chechen civilians may have been injured, more than 500,000 people were displaced, and cities and villages were reduced to rubble across the republic.^[24]

1. ^ "TURKISH VOLUNTEERS IN CHECHNYA". The Jamestown Foundation.
2. ^ Amjad M. Jaimoukha (2005). The Chechens: A Handbook. Psychology Press. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-415-32328-4.
3. ^ Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, at Google Books
4. ^ Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, at Google Books
5. ^ "Radical Ukrainian Nationalism and the War in Chechnya". Jamestown. -UNSO’s “Argo” squad -Viking Brigade
6. ^ Cooley, John K. (2002). Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (3rd ed.). London: Pluto Press. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-7453-1917-9. A Turkish Fascist youth group, the "Grey Wolves," was recruited to fight with the Chechens.
7. ^ Goltz, Thomas (2003). Chechnya Diary: A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-312-26874-9. I called a well-informed diplomat pal and arranged to meet him at a bar favored by the pan-Turkic crowd known as the Gray Wolves, who were said to be actively supporting the Chechens with men and arms.
   ...the Azerbaijani Gray Wolf leader, Iskander, Hamidov...
8. ^ Isingor, Ali (6 September 2000). "Istanbul: Gateway to a holy war". CNN. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014.
9. ^ Galeotti, Mark (2014). Russia's War in Chechnya 1994–2009. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78200-279-6.
10. ^ "Breaking the Conflict Trap: Civil War and Development Policy" (PDF). World Bank Document. Retrieved 29 September 2022.
11. ^ "Radical Ukrainian Nationalism and the War in Chechnya". The Jamestown Foundation.
12. ^ Кривошеев, Г. Ф., ed. (2001). Россия и СССР в войнах XX века. Потери вооруженных сил (in Russian). Олма-Пресс. p. 581. ISBN 5-224-01515-4.
13. ^ Кривошеев, Г. Ф., ed. (2001). Россия и СССР в войнах XX века. Потери вооруженных сил (in Russian). Олма-Пресс. p. 582. ISBN 5-224-01515-4.
14. ^ "Первая чеченская война – 20 лет назад".
15. ^ ^{a b} Saradzhyan, Simon (2005-03-09). "Army Learned Few Lessons From Chechnya". Moscow Times.
16. ^ ^{a b} "The War in Chechnya". MN-Files. Mosnews.com. 2007-02-07. Archived from the original on March 2, 2008.
17. ^ "Human Rights Violations in Chechnya". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2002-12-28. Retrieved 2013-11-23.
18. ^ Felgenhauer, Pavel. "The Russian Army in Chechnya". Crimes of War. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 7 October 2022.
19. ^ Cherkasov, Alexander. "Book of Numbers, Book of Losses, Book of the Final Judgment". Polit.ru. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
20. ^ Федеральный закон № 5-ФЗ от 12 января 1995 (в редакции от 27 ноября 2002) "О ветеранах" (in Russian)
21. ^ Первая чеченская кампания 1994–1996 годов. РИА Новости (in Russian). 11 December 2014. Retrieved 2017-02-09.
22. ^ "20 лет конфликта в Чечне: как республику возвращали к мирной жизни". РБК. Retrieved 2017-02-09.
23. ^ Cite error: The named reference jamestown was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
24. ^ "The War That Continues to Shape Russia, 25 Years Later". The New York Times. 2019-12-10. Retrieved 2020-09-08.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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28 May 1974 – Northern Ireland's power-sharing Sunningdale Agreement collapses following a general strike by loyalists.

Sunningdale Agreement

1973 attempt to end the Troubles by reorganizing the Northern Irish government

The Sunningdale Agreement was an attempt to establish a power-sharing Northern Ireland Executive and a cross-border Council of Ireland. The agreement was signed at Northcote House in Sunningdale Park, located in Sunningdale, Berkshire, on 9 December 1973.^[1] Unionist opposition, violence and a general strike caused the collapse of the agreement in May 1974.

1. ^ "1973: Sunningdale Agreement signed". BBC News. 9 December 1973. Archived from the original on 7 March 2008. Retrieved 24 May 2010.

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29 May 1868 – Mihailo Obrenović III, Prince of Serbia is assassinated.

Mihailbrenović,_Prince_of_Serbia

 

30 May 1814 – The First Treaty of Paris is signed, returning the French frontiers to their 1792 extent, and restoring the House of Bourbon to power.

Treaty of Paris (1814)

1814 peace treaty which ended the War of the Sixth Coalition

For other treaties of Paris, see Treaty of Paris (disambiguation).

The Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 May 1814, ended the war between France and the Sixth Coalition, part of the Napoleonic Wars, following an armistice signed on 23 April between Charles, Count of Artois, and the allies.^[1] The treaty set the borders for France under the House of Bourbon and restored territories to other nations. It is sometimes called the First Peace of Paris, as another one followed in 1815.

1. ^ Büsch 1992, p. 72.

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31 May 1859 – The clock tower at the Houses of Parliament, which houses Big Ben, starts keeping time.

Big Ben

Clock tower in London, England

For other uses, see Big Ben (disambiguation).

Big Ben is the nickname for the Great Bell of the Great Clock of Westminster,^[1][2] at the north end of the Palace of Westminster in London, England,^[3] and the name is frequently extended to refer also to the clock and the clock tower.^[4] The official name of the tower in which Big Ben is located was originally the Clock Tower, but it was renamed Elizabeth Tower in 2012 to mark the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II.

The tower was designed by Augustus Pugin in a neo-Gothic style. When completed in 1859, its clock was the largest and most accurate four-faced striking and chiming clock in the world.^[5] The tower stands 316 feet (96 m) tall, and the climb from ground level to the belfry is 334 steps. Its base is square, measuring 40 feet (12 m) on each side. Dials of the clock are 22.5 feet (6.9 m) in diameter. All four nations of the UK are represented on the tower on shields featuring a rose for England, thistle for Scotland, shamrock for Ireland, and leek for Wales. On 31 May 2009, celebrations were held to mark the tower's 150th anniversary.^[6]

Big Ben is the largest of the tower's five bells and weighs 13.5 long tons (13.7 tonnes; 15.1 short tons).^[3] It was the largest bell in the United Kingdom for 23 years. The origin of the bell's nickname is open to question; it may be named after Sir Benjamin Hall, who oversaw its installation, or heavyweight boxing champion Benjamin Caunt. Four quarter bells chime at 15, 30 and 45 minutes past the hour and just before Big Ben tolls on the hour. The clock uses its original Victorian mechanism, but an electric motor can be used as a backup.

The tower is a British cultural icon recognised all over the world. It is one of the most prominent symbols of the United Kingdom and parliamentary democracy,^[7] and it is often used in the establishing shot of films set in London.^[8] The clock tower has been part of a Grade I listed building since 1970 and a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1987.^[9]

On 21 August 2017, a four-year schedule of renovation works began on the tower. Modifications have included adding a lift, re-glazing and repainting the clock dials, and upgrading lighting and repairing roof tiles among other improvements. With a few exceptions, such as New Year's Eve and Remembrance Sunday, the bells remained silent.^[10]

1. ^ Andersson, Jasmine (29 October 2022). "When do the clocks go back? Big Ben prepares for first change in five years". BBC News. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
2. ^ "West Dial re-connected to the Great Clock". UK Parliament. 28 April 2022. Retrieved 30 October 2022.
3. ^ ^{a b} "The Story of Big Ben". Whitechapel Bell Foundry. Archived from the original on 17 February 2018. Retrieved 4 May 2022.
4. ^ Fowler, p. 95.
5. ^ Excell, Jon (5 July 2016). "Why is Big Ben falling silent?". BBC News.
6. ^ "Join in the anniversary celebrations". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009.
7. ^ "Palace of Westminster and Westminster Abbey including Saint Margaret's Church". UNESCO.
8. ^ "Big Ben in films and popular culture". The Daily Telegraph. 8 November 2016. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
9. ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "UNESCO World Heritage Centre - World Heritage List". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 8 November 2022.
10. ^ Fowler, Susanne (12 April 2021). "What Does It Take to Hear Big Ben Again? 500 Workers and a Hiding Place". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 April 2021.

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1 June 1980 – Cable News Network (CNN) begins broadcasting.

CNN

American news channel

This article is about the channel. For other uses, see CNN (disambiguation).

Television channel

The Cable News Network (CNN) is a multinational news channel and website headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.^[2][3][4] Founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner and Reese Schonfeld as a 24-hour cable news channel, and presently owned by the Manhattan-based media conglomerate Warner Bros. Discovery (WBD),^[5] CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage and the first all-news television channel in the United States.^{[6][7][8][9][10]}

As of February 2023, CNN had 80 million television households as subscribers in the US.^[11] According to Nielsen, in June 2021 CNN ranked third in viewership among cable news networks, behind Fox News and MSNBC, averaging 580,000 viewers throughout the day, down 49% from a year earlier, amid sharp declines in viewers across all cable news networks.^[12] While CNN ranked 14th among all basic cable networks in 2019,^[13][14] then jumped to 7th during a major surge for the three largest cable news networks (completing a rankings streak of Fox News at number 5 and MSNBC at number 6 for that year),^[15] it settled back to number 11 in 2021^[16] and had further declined to number 21 in 2022.^[17]

Globally, CNN programming has aired through CNN International, seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories;^[18] since May 2019, however, the US domestic version has absorbed international news coverage in order to reduce programming costs. The American version, sometimes referred to as CNN (US), is also available in Canada, some islands of the Caribbean and in Japan, where it was first broadcast on CNNj in 2003, with simultaneous translation in Japanese.^[19]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Barr, Jeremy; Izadi, Elahe; Ellison, Sarah; Farhi, Paul (February 2, 2022). "CNN president Jeff Zucker resigns, citing undisclosed relationship with colleague". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 2, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
2. ^ Alfonso, Fernando (May 30, 2020). "CNN Center in Atlanta damaged during protests". CNN. Archived from the original on May 30, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
3. ^ "CNN Center". CNN. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
4. ^ "About Us". CNN. Archived from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
5. ^ "Time Warner: Turner Broadcasting". Archived from the original on January 22, 2011.
6. ^ Kiesewetter, John (May 28, 2000). "In 20 years, CNN has changed the way we view the news". Cincinnati Enquirer. Archived from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
7. ^ "Charles Bierbauer, CNN senior Washington correspondent, discusses his 19-year career at CNN. (May 8, 2000)". CNN. Archived from the original on September 29, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2013.
8. ^ "Reese's Pieces: Mr. Schonfeld, Forgotten Founder of CNN, Is a Man of Many Projects". Observer. January 29, 2001. Archived from the original on September 26, 2020. Retrieved March 1, 2022.
9. ^ Stelter, Brian (July 28, 2020). "Reese Schonfeld, CNN's founding president, has died at 88". CNN. Archived from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
10. ^ "CNN changed news – for better and worse". Taipei Times. May 31, 2005. Archived from the original on June 3, 2015. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
11. ^ "CNN Worldwide Fact Sheet". Archived from the original on March 25, 2021. Retrieved March 15, 2023.
12. ^ Johnson, Ted (June 29, 2021). "Fox News Tops June And Q2 Viewership, But Plunge In Ratings Continues Across All Major Cable News Networks". Deadline. Archived from the original on July 7, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
13. ^ Andreeva, Nellie; Johnson, Ted (December 27, 2019). "Cable Ratings 2019: Fox News Tops Total Viewers, ESPN Wins 18–49 Demo As Entertainment Networks Slide". Deadline. Archived from the original on January 14, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
14. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 26, 2019). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2019's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 6, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
15. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 28, 2020). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2020's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on December 28, 2020. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
16. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 30, 2021). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2021's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
17. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 29, 2022). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2022's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 18, 2023. Retrieved January 19, 2023.
18. ^ "CNN is Viewers Cable Network of Choice for Democratic and Republican National Convention Coverage" (Press release). Time Warner. August 18, 2000. Retrieved February 20, 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}
19. ^ "CNN Partners". CNN Asia Pacific. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2020.

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1 June 1980 – Cable News Network (CNN) begins broadcasting.

CNN

American news channel

This article is about the channel. For other uses, see CNN (disambiguation).

Television channel

The Cable News Network (CNN) is a multinational news channel and website headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S.^[2][3][4] Founded in 1980 by American media proprietor Ted Turner and Reese Schonfeld as a 24-hour cable news channel, and presently owned by the Manhattan-based media conglomerate Warner Bros. Discovery (WBD),^[5] CNN was the first television channel to provide 24-hour news coverage and the first all-news television channel in the United States.^{[6][7][8][9][10]}

As of February 2023, CNN had 80 million television households as subscribers in the US.^[11] According to Nielsen, in June 2021 CNN ranked third in viewership among cable news networks, behind Fox News and MSNBC, averaging 580,000 viewers throughout the day, down 49% from a year earlier, amid sharp declines in viewers across all cable news networks.^[12] While CNN ranked 14th among all basic cable networks in 2019,^[13][14] then jumped to 7th during a major surge for the three largest cable news networks (completing a rankings streak of Fox News at number 5 and MSNBC at number 6 for that year),^[15] it settled back to number 11 in 2021^[16] and had further declined to number 21 in 2022.^[17]

Globally, CNN programming has aired through CNN International, seen by viewers in over 212 countries and territories;^[18] since May 2019, however, the US domestic version has absorbed international news coverage in order to reduce programming costs. The American version, sometimes referred to as CNN (US), is also available in Canada, some islands of the Caribbean and in Japan, where it was first broadcast on CNNj in 2003, with simultaneous translation in Japanese.^[19]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Barr, Jeremy; Izadi, Elahe; Ellison, Sarah; Farhi, Paul (February 2, 2022). "CNN president Jeff Zucker resigns, citing undisclosed relationship with colleague". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on February 2, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
2. ^ Alfonso, Fernando (May 30, 2020). "CNN Center in Atlanta damaged during protests". CNN. Archived from the original on May 30, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
3. ^ "CNN Center". CNN. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
4. ^ "About Us". CNN. Archived from the original on January 15, 2021. Retrieved January 16, 2021.
5. ^ "Time Warner: Turner Broadcasting". Archived from the original on January 22, 2011.
6. ^ Kiesewetter, John (May 28, 2000). "In 20 years, CNN has changed the way we view the news". Cincinnati Enquirer. Archived from the original on October 11, 2017. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
7. ^ "Charles Bierbauer, CNN senior Washington correspondent, discusses his 19-year career at CNN. (May 8, 2000)". CNN. Archived from the original on September 29, 2012. Retrieved October 12, 2013.
8. ^ "Reese's Pieces: Mr. Schonfeld, Forgotten Founder of CNN, Is a Man of Many Projects". Observer. January 29, 2001. Archived from the original on September 26, 2020. Retrieved March 1, 2022.
9. ^ Stelter, Brian (July 28, 2020). "Reese Schonfeld, CNN's founding president, has died at 88". CNN. Archived from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved July 31, 2020.
10. ^ "CNN changed news – for better and worse". Taipei Times. May 31, 2005. Archived from the original on June 3, 2015. Retrieved January 24, 2009.
11. ^ "CNN Worldwide Fact Sheet". Archived from the original on March 25, 2021. Retrieved March 15, 2023.
12. ^ Johnson, Ted (June 29, 2021). "Fox News Tops June And Q2 Viewership, But Plunge In Ratings Continues Across All Major Cable News Networks". Deadline. Archived from the original on July 7, 2021. Retrieved July 6, 2021.
13. ^ Andreeva, Nellie; Johnson, Ted (December 27, 2019). "Cable Ratings 2019: Fox News Tops Total Viewers, ESPN Wins 18–49 Demo As Entertainment Networks Slide". Deadline. Archived from the original on January 14, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
14. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 26, 2019). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2019's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 6, 2020. Retrieved January 16, 2020.
15. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 28, 2020). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2020's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on December 28, 2020. Retrieved May 2, 2022.
16. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 30, 2021). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2021's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 12, 2022.
17. ^ Schneider, Michael (December 29, 2022). "Most-Watched Television Networks: Ranking 2022's Winners and Losers". Variety. Archived from the original on January 18, 2023. Retrieved January 19, 2023.
18. ^ "CNN is Viewers Cable Network of Choice for Democratic and Republican National Convention Coverage" (Press release). Time Warner. August 18, 2000. Retrieved February 20, 2010.^{[permanent dead link]}
19. ^ "CNN Partners". CNN Asia Pacific. Archived from the original on July 29, 2012. Retrieved May 4, 2020.

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2 June 1835 – P. T. Barnum and his circus start their first tour of the United States.

P. T. Barnum

American showman and politician (1810–1891)

"Barnum" redirects here. For other uses with the name Barnum, see Barnum (disambiguation).

Phineas Taylor Barnum (/ˈbɑːrnəm/; July 5, 1810 – April 7, 1891) was an American showman, businessman, and politician, remembered for promoting celebrated hoaxes and founding the Barnum & Bailey Circus (1871–2017)^[1] with James Anthony Bailey. He was also an author, publisher, and philanthropist, though he said of himself: "I am a showman by profession ... and all the gilding shall make nothing else of me."^[2] According to his critics, his personal aim was "to put money in his own coffers".^[2] He is widely credited with coining the adage "There's a sucker born every minute",^[3] although no evidence has been collected of him saying this.

Barnum became a small business owner in his early twenties and founded a weekly newspaper before moving to New York City in 1834. He embarked on an entertainment career, first with a variety troupe called "Barnum's Grand Scientific and Musical Theater", and soon after by purchasing Scudder's American Museum which he renamed after himself. He used the museum as a platform to promote hoaxes and human curiosities such as the Fiji mermaid and General Tom Thumb.^[4] In 1850, he promoted the American tour of Swedish opera singer Jenny Lind, paying her an unprecedented $1,000 a night for 150 nights. He suffered economic reversals in the 1850s due to bad investments, as well as years of litigation and public humiliation, but he used a lecture tour as a temperance speaker to emerge from debt. His museum added America's first aquarium and expanded the wax-figure department.

Barnum served two terms in the Connecticut legislature in 1865 as a Republican for Fairfield, Connecticut. He spoke before the legislature concerning the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution which abolished slavery and involuntary servitude: "A human soul, 'that God has created and Christ died for,' is not to be trifled with. It may tenant the body of a Chinaman, a Turk, an Arab, or a Hottentot—it is still an immortal spirit".^[5] He was elected in 1875 as mayor of Bridgeport, Connecticut where he worked to improve the water supply, bring gas lighting to streets, and enforce liquor and prostitution laws. He was also instrumental in starting Bridgeport Hospital in 1878 and was its first president.^[6] Nevertheless, the circus business, begun when he was 60 years old, was the source of much of his enduring fame. He established "P. T. Barnum's Grand Traveling Museum, Menagerie, Caravan & Hippodrome" in 1870, a traveling circus, menagerie, and museum of "freaks" which adopted many names over the years.

Barnum was married to Charity Hallett from 1829 until her death in 1873, and they had four children. In 1874, a few months after his wife's death, he married Nancy Fish, his friend's daughter who was 40 years younger than P. T. Barnum. They were married until 1891 when Barnum died of a stroke at his home. He was buried in Mountain Grove Cemetery, Bridgeport, which he designed himself.^[7]

1. ^ North American Theatre Online: Phineas T. Barnum
2. ^ ^{a b} Kunhardt, Kunhardt & Kunhardt 1995, p. vi
3. ^ Shapiro, Fred R. The Yale Book of Quotations. New Haven: Yale UP, 2006. p. 44
4. ^ Kunhardt, Kunhardt & Kunhardt 1995, p. 73
5. ^ Barnum, Phineas (1888). The life of P. T. Barnum. Buffalo, N.Y.: The Courier Company. p. 237 – via Ebook and Texts Archive – American Libraries.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference kunhardt2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Rogak, Lisa (2004). Stones and Bones of New England: A guide to unusual, historic, and otherwise notable cemeteries. Globe Pequat. ISBN 978-0-7627-3000-1.

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3 June 1940 – World War II: The Luftwaffe bombs Paris.

Paris in World War II

Surrender of Paris

German soldiers parade on the Champs Élysées on 14 June 1940 (Bundesarchiv)

Paris started mobilizing for war in September 1939, when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union attacked Poland, but the war seemed far away until 10 May, 1940, when the Germans attacked France and quickly defeated the French army. The French government departed Paris on 10 June, and the Germans occupied the city on 14 June. During the occupation, the French government moved to Vichy, and Paris was governed by the German military and by French officials approved by the Germans. For Parisians, the occupation was a series of frustrations, shortages and humiliations. A curfew was in effect from nine in the evening until five in the morning; at night, the city went dark. Rationing of food, tobacco, coal and clothing was imposed from September 1940. Every year the supplies grew more scarce and the prices higher. A million Parisians left the city for the provinces, where there was more food and fewer Germans. The French press and radio contained only German propaganda.

Jews in Paris were forced to wear the yellow Star of David badge, and were barred from certain professions and public places. On 16–17 July 1942, 13,152 Jews, including 4,115 children, were rounded up by the French police, on orders of the Germans, and were sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp. The first demonstration against the occupation, by Paris students, took place on 11 November 1940. As the war continued, anti-German clandestine groups and networks were created, some loyal to the French Communist Party, others to General Charles de Gaulle in London. They wrote slogans on walls, organized an underground press, and sometimes attacked German officers. Reprisals by the Germans were swift and harsh.

Following the Allied invasion of Normandy on 6 June, 1944, the French Resistance in Paris launched an uprising on 19 August, seizing the police headquarters and other government buildings. The city was liberated by French and American troops on 25 August; the next day, General de Gaulle led a triumphant parade down the Champs-Élysées on 26 August, and organized a new government. In the following months, ten thousand Parisians who had collaborated with the Germans were arrested and tried, eight thousand convicted, and 116 executed. On 29 April and 13 May 1945, the first post-war municipal elections were held, in which French women voted for the first time.

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4 June 1920 – Hungary loses 71% of its territory and 63% of its population when the Treaty of Trianon is signed in Paris.

Treaty of Trianon

1920 peace treaty on Hungary after World War I

Events leading to World War II

1. Revolutions of 1917–1923
2. Aftermath of World War I 1918–1939
3. Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War 1918–1925
4. Province of the Sudetenland 1918–1920
5. 1918–1920 unrest in Split
6. Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919
7. Heimosodat 1918–1922
8. Austro-Slovene conflict in Carinthia 1918–1919
9. Hungarian–Romanian War 1918–1919
10. Hungarian–Czechoslovak War 1918–1919
11. 1919 Egyptian Revolution
12. Christmas Uprising 1919
13. Irish War of Independence 1919
14. Comintern World Congresses 1919–1935
15. Treaty of Versailles 1919
16. Shandong Problem 1919–1922
17. Polish–Soviet War 1919–1921
18. Polish–Czechoslovak War 1919
19. Polish–Lithuanian War 1919–1920
20. Silesian Uprisings 1919–1921
21. Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919
22. Turkish War of Independence 1919–1923
23. Venizelos–Tittoni agreement 1919
24. Italian Regency of Carnaro 1919–1920
25. Iraqi Revolt 1920
26. Treaty of Trianon 1920
27. Treaty of Rapallo 1920
28. Little Entente 1920–1938
29. Treaty of Tartu (Finland–Russia) 1920–1938
30. Mongolian Revolution of 1921
31. Soviet intervention in Mongolia 1921–1924
32. Franco-Polish alliance 1921–1940
33. Polish–Romanian alliance 1921–1939
34. Genoa Conference (1922)
35. Treaty of Rapallo (1922)
36. March on Rome 1922
37. Sun–Joffe Manifesto 1923
38. Corfu incident 1923
39. Occupation of the Ruhr 1923–1925
40. Treaty of Lausanne 1923–1924
41. Mein Kampf 1925
42. Second Italo-Senussi War 1923–1932
43. First United Front 1923–1927
44. Dawes Plan 1924
45. Treaty of Rome (1924)
46. Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention 1925
47. German–Polish customs war 1925–1934
48. Treaty of Nettuno 1925
49. Locarno Treaties 1925
50. Anti-Fengtian War 1925–1926
51. Treaty of Berlin (1926)
52. May Coup (Poland) 1926
53. Northern Expedition 1926–1928
54. Nanking incident of 1927
55. Chinese Civil War 1927–1937
56. Jinan incident 1928
57. Huanggutun incident 1928
58. Italo-Ethiopian Treaty of 1928
59. Chinese reunification 1928
60. Lateran Treaty 1928
61. Central Plains War 1929–1930
62. Young Plan 1929
63. Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)
64. Great Depression 1929
65. London Naval Treaty 1930
66. Kumul Rebellion 1931–1934
67. Japanese invasion of Manchuria 1931
68. Pacification of Manchukuo 1931–1942
69. January 28 incident 1932
70. Soviet–Japanese border conflicts 1932–1939
71. Geneva Conference 1932–1934
72. May 15 incident 1932
73. Lausanne Conference of 1932
74. Soviet–Polish Non-Aggression Pact 1932
75. Soviet–Finnish Non-Aggression Pact 1932
76. Proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 1932
77. Defense of the Great Wall 1933
78. Battle of Rehe 1933
79. Nazis' rise to power in Germany 1933
80. Reichskonkordat 1933
81. Tanggu Truce 1933
82. Italo-Soviet Pact 1933
83. Inner Mongolian Campaign 1933–1936
84. Austrian Civil War 1934
85. Balkan Pact 1934–1940
86. July Putsch 1934
87. German–Polish declaration of non-aggression 1934–1939
88. Baltic Entente 1934–1939
89. 1934 Montreux Fascist conference
90. Stresa Front 1935
91. Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance 1935
92. Soviet–Czechoslovakia Treaty of Mutual Assistance 1935
93. He–Umezu Agreement 1935
94. Anglo-German Naval Agreement 1935
95. December 9th Movement
96. Second Italo-Ethiopian War 1935–1936
97. February 26 incident 1936
98. Remilitarization of the Rhineland 1936
99. Soviet-Mongolian alliance 1936
100. Spanish Civil War 1936–1939
101. Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936
102. Italo-German "Axis" protocol 1936
103. Anti-Comintern Pact 1936
104. Suiyuan campaign 1936
105. Xi'an Incident 1936
106. Second Sino-Japanese War 1937–1945
107. USS Panay incident 1937
108. Anschluss Mar. 1938
109. 1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania Mar. 1938
110. Easter Accords April 1938
111. May Crisis May 1938
112. Battle of Lake Khasan July–Aug. 1938
113. Salonika Agreement July 1938
114. Bled Agreement Aug. 1938
115. Undeclared German–Czechoslovak War Sep. 1938
116. Munich Agreement Sep. 1938
117. First Vienna Award Nov. 1938
118. German occupation of Czechoslovakia Mar. 1939
119. Hungarian invasion of Carpatho-Ukraine Mar. 1939
120. German ultimatum to Lithuania Mar. 1939
121. Slovak–Hungarian War Mar. 1939
122. Final offensive of the Spanish Civil War Mar.–Apr. 1939
123. Danzig crisis Mar.–Aug. 1939
124. British guarantee to Poland Mar. 1939
125. Italian invasion of Albania Apr. 1939
126. Soviet–British–French Moscow negotiations Apr.–Aug. 1939
127. Pact of Steel May 1939
128. Battles of Khalkhin Gol May–Sep. 1939
129. Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact Aug. 1939
130. Invasion of Poland Sep. 1939

President Mihály Károlyi's speech after the proclamation of the First Hungarian Republic on 16 November, 1918

film: Béla Linder's pacifist speech for military officers, and declaration of Hungarian self-disarmament on 2 November 1918.

Newsreel about Treaty of Trianon, 1920

The Treaty of Trianon (French: Traité de Trianon; Hungarian: Trianoni békeszerződés; Italian: Trattato del Trianon; Romanian: Tratatul de la Trianon) often referred to as the Peace Dictate of Trianon^{[1][2][3][4][5]} or Dictate of Trianon^[6][7] in Hungary, was prepared at the Paris Peace Conference and was signed in the Grand Trianon château in Versailles on 4 June 1920. It formally ended World War I between most of the Allies of World War I^[a] and the Kingdom of Hungary.^{[8][9][10][11]} French diplomats played the major role in designing the treaty, with a view to establishing a French-led coalition of the newly formed states. It regulated the status of the Kingdom of Hungary and defined its borders generally within the ceasefire lines established in November–December 1918 and left Hungary as a landlocked state that included 93,073 square kilometres (35,936 sq mi), 28% of the 325,411 square kilometres (125,642 sq mi) that had constituted the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary (the Hungarian half of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy). The truncated kingdom had a population of 7.6 million, 36% compared to the pre-war kingdom's population of 20.9 million.^[12] Though the areas that were allocated to neighbouring countries had a majority of non-Hungarians, in them lived 3.3 million Hungarians – 31% of the Hungarians – who then became minorities.^{[13][14][15][16]} The treaty limited Hungary's army to 35,000 officers and men, and the Austro-Hungarian Navy ceased to exist. These decisions and their consequences have been the cause of deep resentment in Hungary ever since.^[17]

The principal beneficiaries were the Kingdom of Romania, the Czechoslovak Republic, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia), and the First Austrian Republic. One of the main elements of the treaty was the doctrine of "self-determination of peoples", and it was an attempt to give the non-Hungarians their own national states.^[18] In addition, Hungary had to pay war reparations to its neighbours. The treaty was dictated by the Allies rather than negotiated, and the Hungarians had no option but to accept its terms.^[18] The Hungarian delegation signed the treaty under protest, and agitation for its revision began immediately.^[14][19]

The current boundaries of Hungary are for the most part the same as those defined by the Treaty of Trianon, with minor modifications until 1924 regarding the Hungarian-Austrian border and the transfer of three villages to Czechoslovakia in 1947.^[20][21]

After World War I, despite the "self-determination of peoples" idea of the Allied Powers, only one plebiscite was permitted (later known as the Sopron plebiscite) to settle disputed borders on the former territory of the Kingdom of Hungary,^[22] settling a smaller territorial dispute between the First Austrian Republic and the Kingdom of Hungary, because some months earlier, the Rongyos Gárda launched a series of attacks to oust the Austrian forces that entered the area. During the plebiscite in late 1921, the polling stations were supervised by British, French, and Italian army officers of the Allied Powers.^[23]

1. ^ "Hungarian President János Áder's Speech on the Day of National Unity". Consulate General of Hungary Manchester.
2. ^ Dr. Dobó, Attila; Kollár, Ferenc; Zsoldos, Sándor; Kohári, Nándor (2021). A trianoni békediktátum [The Peace Dictate of Trianon] (PDF) (in Hungarian) (2nd ed.). Magyar Kultúra Emlékívek Kiadó. ISBN 978-615-81078-9-1.
3. ^ Prof. Dr. Gulyás, László (2021). Trianoni kiskáté - 101 kérdés és 101 válasz a békediktátumról (in Hungarian).
4. ^ Makkai, Béla (2019). Chopping Hungary Up by the 1920 Peace Dictate of Trianon. Causes, Events and Consequences.
5. ^ Gulyás, László; Anka, László; Arday, Lajos; Csüllög, Gábor; Gecse, Géza; Hajdú, Zoltán; Hamerli, Petra; Heka, László; Jeszenszky, Géza; Kaposi, Zoltán; Kolontári, Attila; Köő, Artúr; Kurdi, Krisztina; Ligeti, Dávid; Majoros, István; Maruzsa, Zoltán; Miklós, Péter; Nánay, Mihály; Olasz, Lajos; Ördögh, Tibor; Pelles, Márton; Popély, Gyula; Sokcsevits, Dénes; Suba, János; Szávai, Ferenc; Tefner, Zoltán; Tóth, Andrej; Tóth, Imre; Vincze, Gábor; Vizi, László Tamás (2019–2020). A trianoni békediktátum története hét kötetben - I. kötet: Trianon Nagy Háború alatti előzményei, az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia bukása 1914-1918 / II. kötet: A katonai megszállástól a magyar békedelegáció elutazásáig 1918-1920 / III. kötet: Apponyi beszédétől a Határkijelölő Bizottságok munkájának befejezéséig / IV. kötet: Térképek a trianoni békediktátum történetéhez / V. kötet: Párhuzamos Trianonok, a Párizs környéki békék: Versailles, Saint-Germain, Neuilly, Sevres, Lausanne / VI. kötet: Dokumentumok, források / VII. kötet: Kronológia és életrajzok [The history of the Peace Dictate of Trianon in seven volumes - Volume I: Trianon's history during the Great War, the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy 1914-1918 / Volume II: From the military occupation to the departure of the Hungarian peace delegation 1918-1920 / Volume III: From Apponyi's speech to the completion of the work of the Boundary Demarcation Committees / Volume IV: Maps for the history of the Trianon peace decree / Volume V: Parallel Trianons, the peaces around Paris: Versailles, Saint-Germain, Neuilly, Sevres, Lausanne / Volume VI: Documents, sources / Volume VII: Chronology and biographies] (in Hungarian). Egyesület Közép-Európa Kutatására. ISBN 9786158046299.
6. ^ Bank, Barbara; Kovács, Attila Zoltán (2022). Trianon - A diktátum teljes szövege [Trianon - Full text of the dictate] (in Hungarian). Erdélyi Szalon. ISBN 9786156502247.
7. ^ Raffay, Ernő; Szabó, Pál Csaba. A Trianoni diktátum története és következményei [The history and consequences of the Dictate of Trianon] (in Hungarian). Trianon Múzeum.
8. ^ Craig, G. A. (1966). Europe since 1914. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
9. ^ Grenville, J. A. S. (1974). The Major International Treaties 1914–1973. A history and guides with texts. Methnen London.
10. ^ Lichtheim, G. (1974). Europe in the Twentieth Century. New York: Praeger.
11. ^ "Text of the Treaty, Treaty of Peace Between The Allied and Associated Powers and Hungary And Protocol and Declaration, Signed at Trianon June 4, 1920".
12. ^ "Open-Site:Hungary".
13. ^ Frucht 2004, p. 360.
14. ^ ^{a b} "Trianon, Treaty of". The Columbia Encyclopedia. 2009.
15. ^ Macartney, C. A. (1937). Hungary and her successors: The Treaty of Trianon and Its Consequences 1919–1937. Oxford University Press.
16. ^ Bernstein, Richard (9 August 2003). "East on the Danube: Hungary's Tragic Century". The New York Times.
17. ^ Toomey, Michael (2018). "History, Nationalism and Democracy: Myth and Narrative in Viktor Orbán's 'Illiberal Hungary'". New Perspectives. 26 (1): 87–108. doi:10.1177/2336825x1802600110. S2CID 158970490.
18. ^ ^{a b} van den Heuvel, Martin P.; Siccama, J. G. (1992). The Disintegration of Yugoslavia. Rodopi. p. 126. ISBN 90-5183-349-0.
19. ^ Tucker & Roberts 2005, p. 1183: "Virtually the entire population of what remained of Hungary regarded the Treaty of Trianon as manifestly unfair, and agitation for revision began immediately."
20. ^ Botlik, József (June 2008). "AZ ŐRVIDÉKI (BURGENLANDI) MAGYARSÁG SORSA". vasiszemle.hu. VASI SZEMLE.
21. ^ "Szlovákiai Magyar Adatbank » pozsonyi hídfő". adatbank.sk.
22. ^ Richard C. Hall (2014). War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia. ABC-CLIO. p. 309. ISBN 9781610690317.
23. ^ Irredentist and National Questions in Central Europe, 1913–1939: Hungary, 2v, Volume 5, Part 1 of Irredentist and National Questions in Central Europe, 1913–1939 Seeds of conflict. Kraus Reprint. 1973. p. 69.

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