This day in .....

3 July 1973 – David Bowie retires his stage persona Ziggy Stardust with the surprise announcement that it is "the last show that we'll ever do" on the last day of the Ziggy Stardust Tour.

Ziggy Stardust (character)

Character created by David Bowie in 1971

Fictional character

Ziggy Stardust is a fictional character created by English musician David Bowie, and was Bowie's stage persona during 1972 and 1973. The eponymous character of the song "Ziggy Stardust" and its parent album The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars (1972), Ziggy Stardust was retained for Bowie's subsequent concert tour through the United Kingdom, Japan and North America, during which Bowie performed as the character backed by his band The Spiders from Mars. Bowie continued the character in his next album Aladdin Sane (1973), which he described as "Ziggy goes to America". Bowie retired the character in October 1973 after one final show at The Marquee in London.^[1]

As conveyed in the title song and album, Ziggy Stardust is an androgynous, alien rock star who came to Earth before an impending apocalyptic disaster to deliver a message of hope. After accumulating a large following of fans and being worshipped as a messiah, Ziggy eventually dies as a victim of his own fame and excess. The character was meant to symbolise an over-the-top, sexually liberated rock star and serve as a commentary on a society in which celebrities are worshipped. Influences for the character included English singer Vince Taylor, Texan musician the Legendary Stardust Cowboy, and Japanese kabuki theatre.

Ziggy Stardust's exuberant fashion made the character and Bowie himself staples in the glam rock repertoire well into the 1970s, defining what the genre would become. The success of the character and its iconic look flung Bowie into international superstardom. Rolling Stone wrote that Bowie's Ziggy Stardust was "the alter ego that changed music forever and sent his career into orbit".^[2]

Ziggy Stardust's look and message of youth liberation are now representative of one of Bowie's most memorable eras. The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars became Bowie's second most popular album in terms of record sales.^[3]

1. ^ ^{a b} Taylor, Trey (2017-11-20). "See Terry O'Neill's rare images of David Bowie's last show as Ziggy Stardust". Interview Magazine. Retrieved 2024-02-20.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference Light was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Dee, Johnny (7 January 2012). "David Bowie: Infomania". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 January 2014. Retrieved 3 February 2020.

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4 July 1927 – First flight of the Lockheed Vega.

Lockheed Vega

Utility transport aircraft by Lockheed

For the later corporation known as Lockheed-Vega, see Vega Aircraft Corporation.

The Lockheed Vega is an American five- to seven-seat high-wing monoplane airliner built by the Lockheed Corporation starting in 1927. It became famous for its use by a number of record-breaking pilots who were attracted to its high speed and long range. Amelia Earhart became the first woman to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean in one, and Wiley Post used his to prove the existence of the jet stream after flying around the world twice.

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5 July 1975 – Arthur Ashe becomes the first black man to win the Wimbledon singles title.

Arthur Ashe

American tennis player (1943–1993)

For the British Columbia politician, see Arthur James Richard Ash.

Arthur Robert Ashe Jr. (July 10, 1943 – February 6, 1993) was an American professional tennis player. He won three Grand Slam titles in singles and two in doubles. Ashe was the first black player selected to the United States Davis Cup team, and the only black man ever to win the singles titles at Wimbledon, the US Open, and the Australian Open. He retired in 1980.

Ashe was ranked world No. 1 by Rex Bellamy,^[3] Bud Collins,^[4] Judith Elian,^[5] Lance Tingay,^[6] World Tennis^[7] and Tennis Magazine (U.S.)^[8] in 1975. That year, Ashe was awarded the 'Martini and Rossi' Award, voted for by a panel of journalists,^[9] and the ATP Player of the Year award. In the ATP computer rankings, he peaked at No. 2 in May 1976.^[10]

Ashe is believed to have acquired HIV from a blood transfusion he received during heart bypass surgery in 1983. He publicly announced his illness in April 1992, and began working to educate others about HIV and AIDS. He founded the Arthur Ashe Foundation for the Defeat of AIDS and the Arthur Ashe Institute for Urban Health before his death from AIDS-related pneumonia at the age of 49 on February 6, 1993. On June 20, 1993, he was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by United States President Bill Clinton. Arthur Ashe Stadium, the main court for the US Open and the largest tennis arena in the world, is named in his honor.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Arthur Ashe: Career match record". thetennisbase.com. Tennis Base. Retrieved September 22, 2021.
2. ^ "Aurthur Ashe bio at ESPN". Retrieved August 6, 2014.
3. ^ The Times (London), December 30, 1975, p.6
4. ^ Collins & Hollander (1997), p. 651
5. ^ Quidet, Christian (1989). La Fabuleuse Histoire du Tennis (in French). Paris: Nathan. p. 772. ISBN 9782092864388.
6. ^ Barrett, John, ed. (1990). World Of Tennis. London: Collins Willow. pp. 235–237. ISBN 9780002183550.
7. ^ "Ashe replaces Connor in magazine rankings". The Morning Call. December 9, 1975. p. 38.
8. ^ "Rankings Dept". The Journal Herald. January 16, 1976. p. 18.
9. ^ "Times Tribune (Scranton), 8 February 1976". newspapers.com. February 8, 1976.
10. ^ "Arthur Ashe | Overview | ATP Tour | Tennis". ATP Tour. Retrieved June 12, 2019.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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6 July 1944 – Jackie Robinson refuses to move to the back of a bus, leading to a court-martial.

Jackie Robinson

American baseball player (1919–1972)

For other people named Jackie Robinson, see Jackie Robinson (disambiguation).

Baseball player

Jack Roosevelt Robinson (January 31, 1919 – October 24, 1972) was an American professional baseball player who became the first African American to play in Major League Baseball (MLB) in the modern era. Robinson broke the color line when he started at first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers on April 15, 1947. The Dodgers signing Robinson heralded the end of racial segregation in professional baseball that had relegated black players to the Negro leagues since the 1880s. Robinson was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1962.

Born in Cairo, Georgia, Robinson was raised in Pasadena, California. A four-sport student athlete at Pasadena Junior College and the University of California, Los Angeles, he was better known for football than he was for baseball, becoming a star college player with the UCLA Bruins football team. Following his college career, Robinson was drafted for service during World War II but was court martialed for refusing to sit at the back of a segregated Army bus, eventually being honorably discharged. Afterwards, he signed with the Kansas City Monarchs of the Negro leagues from where he caught the eye of Branch Rickey, general manager of the Brooklyn Dodgers, who thought he would be the perfect candidate for breaking the color line in Major League Baseball.

During his 10-year MLB career, Robinson won the inaugural Rookie of the Year Award in 1947, was an All-Star for six consecutive seasons from 1949 through 1954, and won the National League (NL) Most Valuable Player Award in 1949—the first black player so honored. Robinson played in six World Series and contributed to the Dodgers' 1955 World Series championship. In 1997, Major League Baseball retired his uniform No. 42 across all major league teams; he was the first professional athlete in any sport to be so honored. MLB also adopted a new annual tradition, "Jackie Robinson Day", for the first time on April 15, 2004, on which every player on every team wears No. 42.

Robinson's character, his use of nonviolence, and his talent challenged the traditional basis of segregation that had then marked many other aspects of American life. He influenced the culture of and contributed significantly to the civil rights movement. Robinson also was the first black television analyst in MLB and the first black vice president of a major American corporation, Chock full o'Nuts. In the 1960s, he helped establish the Freedom National Bank, an African-American-owned financial institution based in Harlem, New York. After his death in 1972, Robinson was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and Presidential Medal of Freedom in recognition of his achievements on and off the field.

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7 July 2007 – The first Live Earth benefit concert was held in 11 locations around the world.

Live Earth (2007 concert)

Event

Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox music festival with unknown parameter "Participation"

Live Earth was a one-off event developed to combat climate change. The first series of benefit concerts were held on July 7, 2007. The concerts brought together more than 150 musical acts in twelve locations around the world which were broadcast to a mass global audience through televisions, radio, and streamed via the Internet. It was "unclear" where ticket proceeds from ticket sales went towards.

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8 July 1980 – The inaugural 1980 State of Origin game is won by Queensland who defeat New South Wales 20–10 at Lang Park.

1980 State of Origin game

The 1980 State of Origin game was the first game between the Queensland Maroons and the New South Wales Blues rugby league teams to be played under "state of origin" selection rules. It was the third match of 1980s annual interstate series between the Blues and the Maroons, and was only allowed to go ahead because the first two matches (and the title) were already won by New South Wales under established 'state of residency' rules. It was played on 8 July 1980 under the newly configured rules by which a player would represent his "state of origin", i.e. the state in which he was born or in which he started playing registered first grade rugby league football.

The first two matches had been played under the existing residential selection rules - i.e. Blues players could only be sourced from clubs south of the border and the Maroons only from north of it before the single experimental match took place. This was often a source of angst for Queensland as the old state-of-residence rules had long seen some of Queensland's top players actually representing New South Wales as players could earn better money in the Sydney premiership thanks to clubs cashed up with poker machine money. As poker machines were illegal in Queensland, most of the clubs couldn't hope to match the money on offer to their star players, with a steady stream of players leaving to play for Sydney clubs. The list of players who had headed south in the 1960s and 1970s had included Arthur Beetson, John Lang, Rod Reddy, Rod Morris, Mitch Brennan and Kerry Boustead.

After a match involving intense all-in brawling, the Maroons won the first state of origin game 20–10.

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9 July 1877 – The inaugural Wimbledon Championships begins.

1877 Wimbledon Championship

First staging of the Wimbledon Tennis Championships

Tennis tournament

The 1877 Wimbledon Championship was a men's tennis tournament held at the All England Croquet and Lawn Tennis Club (AEC & LTC) in Wimbledon, London. It was the world's first official lawn tennis tournament, and was later recognised as the first Grand Slam tournament or "Major". The AEC & LTC had been founded in July 1868, as the All England Croquet Club. Lawn tennis was introduced in February 1875 to compensate for the waning interest in croquet. In June 1877 the club decided to organise a tennis tournament to pay for the repair of its pony roller, needed to maintain the lawns. A set of rules was drawn up for the tournament, derived from the first standardised rules of tennis issued by the Marylebone Cricket Club in May 1875.

The Gentlemen's Singles competition, the only event of the championship, was contested on grass courts by 22 players who each paid one guinea to participate. The tournament started on 9 July 1877, and the final – delayed for three days by rain – was played on 19 July in front of a crowd of about 200 people who each paid an entry fee of one shilling. The winner received 12 guineas in prize money and a silver challenge cup, valued at 25 guineas, donated by the sports magazine The Field. Spencer Gore, a 27-year-old rackets player from Wandsworth, became the first Wimbledon champion by defeating William Marshall, a 28-year-old real tennis player, in three straight sets in a final that lasted 48 minutes. The tournament made a profit of £10. An analysis made after the tournament led to some modifications of the rules regarding the court dimensions.

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10 July 1943 – World War II: Operation Husky begins in Sicily

Allied invasion of Sicily

1943 military campaign of World War II on the island of Sicily, Italy

"Invasion of Sicily" redirects here. For the Athenian offensive in the Second Peloponnesian War, see Sicilian Expedition. For the 1860 conquest of Sicily as part of the Unification of Italy, see Expedition of the Thousand.

The Allied invasion of Sicily, also known as the Battle of Sicily and Operation Husky, was a major campaign of World War II in which the Allied forces invaded the island of Sicily in July 1943 and took it from the Axis powers (Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany). It began with a large amphibious and airborne operation, followed by a six-week land campaign, and initiated the Italian campaign.

To divert some of the Axis forces to other areas, the Allies engaged in several deception operations, the most famous and successful of which was Operation Mincemeat. Husky began on the night of 9–10 July 1943 and ended on 17 August. Strategically, Husky achieved the goals set out for it by Allied planners; the Allies drove Axis air, land and naval forces from the island and the Mediterranean sea lanes were opened for Allied merchant ships for the first time since 1941. These events led to the Italian dictator, Benito Mussolini, being toppled from power in Italy on 25 July, and to the Allied invasion of Italy on 3 September.

The German leader, Adolf Hitler, "canceled a major offensive at Kursk after only a week, in part to divert forces to Italy," resulting in a reduction of German strength on the Eastern Front.^[15] The collapse of Italy necessitated German troops replacing the Italians in Italy and to a lesser extent the Balkans, resulting in one-fifth of the entire German army being diverted from the east to southern Europe, a proportion that would remain until near the end of the war.^[16]

1. ^ Gaujac, p. 68
2. ^ Royal Australian Navy – the corvettes/minesweepers HMAS Cairns, Cessnock, HMAS Gawler, HMAS Geraldton, HMAS Ipswich, HMAS Lismore, HMAS Maryborough, and HMAS Wollongong
   Royal Australian Air Force – No. 3 Squadron RAAF (fighters), No. 450 Squadron RAAF (fighters), No. 458 Squadron RAAF (maritime patrol), and No. 462 Squadron RAAF (heavy bombers)
3. ^ "SICILY 1943 Battle Honors". Royal Australian Navy Official site. For service in the prescribed area, 10 July to 17 August 1943
4. ^ "450 Squadron RAAF Roll of Honour". Queensland War Memorial Register. 16 September 2015.
5. ^ Mitcham & von Stauffenberg (2007), p. 63
6. ^ ^{a b} Mitcham & von Stauffenberg (2007), p. 307
7. ^ Le Operazioni in Sicilia e in Calabria (Luglio-Settembre 1943), Alberto Santoni, p.400, Stato maggiore dell'Esercito, Ufficio storico, 1989
8. ^ Including Navy and Air Force personnel.
9. ^ Dickson(2001) p. 201
10. ^ Shaw, p. 119
11. ^ ^{a b} Hart, Basil H. Liddel (1970). A History of the Second World War. London, Weidenfeld Nicolson. p. 627.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Sicily p. 305 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ ^{a b} Ufficio storico dello Stato Maggiore dell'Esercito (USSME) (1993). Le operazioni in Sicilia e in Calabria. Rome. pp. 400–401.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
14. ^ "La guerra in Sicilia". Sbarchi Alleati in Italia.
15. ^ Atkinson 2007, p. 172
16. ^ Charles T. O'Reilly. "Forgotten Battles: Italy's War of Liberation, 1943–1945." Lexington Books, 2001. pp. 37–38.

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11 July 1922 – The Hollywood Bowl opens.

Hollywood Bowl

Amphitheater in Los Angeles, California

For the bowling operator, see Hollywood Bowl Group. For the college football bowl game, see LA Bowl.

The Hollywood Bowl is an amphitheatre in the Hollywood Hills of Los Angeles, California, United States. It was named one of the 10 best live music venues in the United States by Rolling Stone magazine in 2018.^[1] It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2023.^[2]

The Hollywood Bowl is known for its distinctive bandshell, originally a set of concentric arches that graced the site from 1929 through 2003, before being replaced with a larger one to begin the 2004 season. The shell is set against the backdrop of the Hollywood Hills and the famous Hollywood Sign to the northeast.

The "bowl" refers to the shape of the concave hillside into which the amphitheater is carved. The Bowl is owned by the County of Los Angeles and is the home of the Hollywood Bowl Orchestra, the summer home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic, and the host venue for hundreds of musical events each year.^{[3][citation needed]}

Located on North Highland Avenue, it is north of Hollywood Boulevard and approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) from the Hollywood/Highland Metro Rail station. It is adjacent to U.S. Route 101.

1. ^ Staff (December 13, 2018). "10 Best Live Music Venues in America. From big rooms to intimate spaces, here's a selection of some of the country's best live music spots". Rolling Stone. Retrieved December 23, 2018.
2. ^ "WEEKLY LIST OF ACTIONS TAKEN ON PROPERTIES: 12/21/2023 THROUGH 12/29/2023". National Park Service. Retrieved January 12, 2024.
3. ^ "Hollywood Bowl History". Hollywood Bowl. Retrieved March 6, 2019.

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12 July 1971 – The Australian Aboriginal Flag is flown for the first time.

Australian Aboriginal Flag

Redirect to:

• Australian Aboriginal flag

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13 July 1878 – Treaty of Berlin: The European powers redraw the map of the Balkans. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania become completely independent of the Ottoman Empire.

Treaty of Berlin (1878)

Settlement by the Congress of Berlin following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78

The Treaty of Berlin (formally the Treaty between Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman Empire for the Settlement of Affairs in the East) was signed on 13 July 1878.^[1][2] In the aftermath of the Russian victory against the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the major powers restructured the map of the Balkan region. They reversed some of the extreme gains claimed by Russia in the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano, but the Ottomans lost their major holdings in Europe. It was one of three major peace agreements in the period after the 1815 Congress of Vienna. It was the final act of the Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) and included Great Britain and Ireland, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Chancellor of Germany Otto von Bismarck was the chairman and dominant personality.

The most important task of the Congress was to decide the fate of Bulgaria, but Bulgaria itself was excluded from participation in the talks, at Russian insistence.^[3][4] At the time, as it was not a sovereign state, Bulgaria was not a subject of international law, and the same went for the Bulgarians themselves. The exclusion was already an established fact in the great powers' Constantinople Conference, which had been held one year before without any Bulgarian participation.

The most notable result of the conference was the official recognition of the newly independent states of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro (which had de facto been acting independently for decades).

1. ^ Hertslet, Edward (1891), "Treaty between Great-Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Turkey, for the Settlement of Affairs in the East, Signed at Berlin, 13th July 1878 (Translation)", The Map of Europe by Treaty; which have taken place since the general peace of 1814. With numerous maps and notes, vol. IV (1875–1891) (First ed.), London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, pp. 2759–2798, retrieved 8 February 2019 – via Internet Archive
2. ^ Phillips 1911.
3. ^ Krasner, Stephen D. (1999). Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy. Princeton University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-691-00711-X.
4. ^ Bourchier, James David (1911). "Bulgaria/History" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 04 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 779–784. Political History

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14 July 1960 – Jane Goodall arrives at the Gombe Stream Reserve in present-day Tanzania to begin her study of chimpanzees in the wild

Jane Goodall

English primatologist and anthropologist (born 1934)

For the Australian author, see Jane R. Goodall.

Dame Jane Morris Goodall DBE (/ˈɡʊdɔːl/; born Valerie Jane Morris-Goodall; 3 April 1934),^[3] formerly Baroness Jane van Lawick-Goodall, is an English primatologist and anthropologist.^[4] She is considered the world's foremost expert on chimpanzees, after 60 years' studying the social and family interactions of wild chimpanzees. Goodall first went to Gombe Stream National Park in Tanzania to observe its chimpanzees in 1960.^[5]

She is the founder of the Jane Goodall Institute and the Roots & Shoots programme, and she has worked extensively on conservation and animal welfare issues. As of 2022, she is on the board of the Nonhuman Rights Project.^[6] In April 2002, she was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace. Goodall is an honorary member of the World Future Council.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference goodphd was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Dame Jane Goodall". Woman's Hour. 26 January 2010. BBC Radio 4. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
3. ^ The Biography Channel (2010). "Jane Goodall Biography". Archived from the original on 10 August 2010. Retrieved 28 July 2010.
4. ^ Holloway, M. (1997) Profile: Jane Goodall – Gombe's Famous Primate, Scientific American 277(4), 42–44.
5. ^ "Jane in the Forest Again". National Geographic. April 2003. Archived from the original on 10 December 2007. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
6. ^ "Jane Goodall, Board Member". Nonhuman Rights Project. Retrieved 13 November 2022.

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15 July 1815 – Napoleonic Wars: Napoleon Bonaparte surrenders aboard HMS Bellerophon.

Napoleonic Wars

1803–1815 series of wars led by Napoleon

Napoleonic Wars

1000km
620miles

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

  

Key:

1

Third Coalition: Germany 1803:...Austerlitz...

2

Fourth Coalition: Prussia 1806:...Berlin...

3

Peninsular War: Portugal 1807...Torres Vedras...

4

Peninsular War: Spain 1808...Vitoria...

5

Fifth Coalition: Austria 1809:...Landshut...

6

French invasion of Russia 1812:...Moscow...

7

Sixth Coalition: Germany 1813:...Leipzig...

8

Sixth Coalition: France 1814:...Paris...

9

Hundred Days 1815:...Waterloo...

The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of conflicts fought between the First French Empire under Napoleon (1804–1815) and a fluctuating array of European coalitions. The wars originated in political forces arising from the French Revolution (1789–1799) and from the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802), and produced a period of French domination over Continental Europe.^[32] The wars are categorised as seven conflicts, five named after the coalitions that fought Napoleon, plus two named for their respective theatres; the War of the Third Coalition, War of the Fourth Coalition, War of the Fifth Coalition, War of the Sixth Coalition, War of the Seventh Coalition, the Peninsular War, and the French invasion of Russia.^[33]

The first stage of the war broke out with Britain having declared war on France on 18 May 1803, alongside the Third Coalition. In December 1805, Napoleon defeated the allied Russo-Austrian army at Austerlitz, thus forcing Austria to make peace. Concerned about increasing French power, Prussia led the creation of the Fourth Coalition, which resumed war in October 1806. Napoleon soon defeated the Prussians at Jena-Auerstedt and the Russians at Friedland, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. The treaty had failed to end the tension, and war broke out again in 1809, with the Austrian-led Fifth Coalition. At first, the Austrians won a significant victory at Aspern-Essling, but were quickly defeated at Wagram.

Hoping to isolate and weaken Britain economically through his Continental System, Napoleon launched an invasion of Portugal, the only remaining British ally in continental Europe. After occupying Lisbon in November 1807, and with the bulk of French troops present in Spain, Napoleon seized the opportunity to turn against his former ally, depose the reigning Spanish royal family and declare his brother King of Spain in 1808 as José I. The Spanish and Portuguese thus revolted, with British support, and expelled the French from Iberia in 1814 after six years of fighting.

Concurrently, Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, routinely violated the Continental System, prompting Napoleon to launch a massive invasion of Russia in 1812. The resulting campaign ended in disaster for France and the near-destruction of Napoleon's Grande Armée.

Encouraged by the defeat, Austria, Prussia, Sweden, and Russia formed the Sixth Coalition and began a new campaign against France, decisively defeating Napoleon at Leipzig in October 1813. The Allies then invaded France from the east, while the Peninsular War spilled over into southwestern France. Coalition troops captured Paris at the end of March 1814, forced Napoleon to abdicate in April, exiled him to the island of Elba, and restored power to the Bourbons. Napoleon escaped in February 1815, and reassumed control of France for around one Hundred Days. The allies formed the Seventh Coalition, which defeated him at Waterloo in June 1815, and exiled him to the island of Saint Helena, where he died six years later.^[34]

The wars had profound consequences on global history, including the spread of nationalism and liberalism, advancements in civil law, the rise of Britain as the world's foremost naval and economic power, the appearance of independence movements in Spanish America and the subsequent decline of the Spanish and Portuguese Empires, the fundamental reorganization of German and Italian territories into larger states, and the introduction of radically new methods of conducting warfare. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna redrew Europe's borders and brought a relative peace to the continent, lasting until the Crimean War in 1853.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Arnold 1995, p. 36.
2. ^ The Austrian Imperial-Royal Army (Kaiserliche-Königliche Heer) 1805–1809: The Hungarian Royal Army [1] Archived 22 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine
3. ^ Fisher, Todd (2001). The Napoleonic Wars: The Empires Fight Back 1808–1812. Oshray Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-298-2. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Leggiere 2014.
5. ^ "Milestones: 1801–1829 - Office of the Historian". history.state.gov.
6. ^ Sainsbury, John (1842). Sketch of the Napoleon Museum. London. p. 15. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 13 January 2018.
7. ^ "The Royal Navy". Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 15 February 2016.
8. ^ Schäfer 2002, p. 137.
9. ^ Edward et al., pp. 522–524
10. ^ "De Grondwet van 1815". Parlement & Politiek (in Dutch). Archived from the original on 26 December 2018. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
11. ^ Dwyer, Philip G. (2014). The Rise of Prussia 1700–1830. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-88703-4. Archived from the original on 22 May 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2017.
12. ^ Collier, Martin (2003). Italian unification, 1820–71. Heinemann Advanced History (1st ed.). Oxford: Heinemann. p. 2. ISBN 0-435-32754-2. The Risorgimento is the name given to the process that ended with the political unification of Italy in 1871
13. ^ Riall, Lucy (1994). The Italian Risorgimento: state, society, and national unification (1st ed.). London: Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 0-203-41234-6. The functional importance of the Risorgimento to both Italian politics and Italian historiography has made this short period (1815–60) one of the most contested and controversial in modern Italian history
14. ^ Walter, Jakob; Raeff, Marc (1996). The diary of a Napoleonic foot soldier. Princeton, N.J.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
15. ^ Martyn Lyons pp. 234–236
16. ^ Payne 1973, pp. 432–433.
17. ^ Esdaile 2009.
18. ^ Riehn 1991, p. 50.
19. ^ Chandler & Beckett, p. 132
20. ^ Elliott, George (1816). The Life of the Most Noble Arthur, Duke of Wellington. London: J. Cundee. p. xiii–xiv. Archived from the original on 8 December 2023. Retrieved 22 November 2023.
21. ^ Esdaile, Charles J. (2004). Fighting Napoleon: Guerrillas, Bandits and Adventurers in Spain, 1808–1814, p. 108. Yale University Press. Archived 22 November 2023 at the Wayback Machine Google Books. Retrieved 14 September 2013.
22. ^ John France (2011). Perilous Glory: The Rise of Western Military Power. Yale UP. p. 351. ISBN 978-0-300-17744-2.
23. ^ White 2014 cites Clodfelter and Danzer
24. ^ ^{a b} White 2014, Napoleonic Wars cites Urlanis 1971
25. ^ Canales 2004.
26. ^ White 2014 cites Danzer
27. ^ ^{a b} White 2014 cites Payne
28. ^ Clodfelter
29. ^ White 2014.
30. ^ ^{a b c} Philo 2010.
31. ^ Bodart 1916.
32. ^ Colson, Bruno; Mikaberidze, Alexander, eds. (2023). The Cambridge History of the Napoleonic Wars: Volume 2: Fighting the Napoleonic Wars. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108278096. ISBN 978-1-108-41766-2.
33. ^ "The Napoleonic Wars". Encyclopædia Britannica (Online ed.). Retrieved 30 January 2024.
34. ^ Zamoyski, Adam (2018). Napoleon: A Life. London: Basic Books. p. 480. ISBN 978-0-465-05593-7. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 7 November 2018.

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16 July 1948 – The storming of the cockpit of the Miss Macao passenger seaplane, operated by a subsidiary of the Cathay Pacific Airways, marks the first aircraft hijacking of a commercial plane.

Aircraft hijacking

Incident involving unlawful seizure of an aircraft in operation

"Skyjack" redirects here. For other uses, see Skyjack (disambiguation) and Skyjacker (disambiguation).

"Air piracy" redirects here. For the type of stock character in science fiction and fantasy, see Air pirate.

Aircraft hijacking (also known as airplane hijacking, skyjacking, plane hijacking, plane jacking, air robbery, air piracy, or aircraft piracy, with the last term used within the special aircraft jurisdiction of the United States) is the unlawful seizure of an aircraft by an individual or a group.^[1] Dating from the earliest of hijackings, most cases involve the pilot being forced to fly according to the hijacker's demands. There have also been incidents where the hijackers have overpowered the flight crew, made unauthorized entry into the cockpit and flown them into buildings – most notably in the September 11 attacks – and in several cases, planes have been hijacked by the official pilot or co-pilot; e.g., Ethiopian Airlines Flight 702.^[2][3][4][5]

Unlike carjacking or sea piracy, an aircraft hijacking is not usually committed for robbery or theft. Individuals driven by personal gain often divert planes to destinations where they are not planning to go themselves.^[6] Some hijackers intend to use passengers or crew as hostages, either for monetary ransom or for some political or administrative concession by authorities. Various motives have driven such occurrences, such as demanding the release of certain high-profile individuals or for the right of political asylum (notably Flight ET 961), but sometimes a hijacking may have been affected by a failed private life or financial distress, as in the case of Aarno Lamminparras in the Oulu Aircraft Hijacking.^[7] Hijackings involving hostages have produced violent confrontations between hijackers and the authorities, during negotiation and settlement. In the case of Lufthansa Flight 181 and Air France Flight 139, the hijackers were not satisfied and showed no inclination to surrender, resulting in attempts by special forces to rescue passengers.^[8]

In most jurisdictions of the world, aircraft hijacking is punishable by life imprisonment or a long prison sentence. In most jurisdictions where the death penalty is a legal punishment, aircraft hijacking is a capital crime, including in China, India, Liberia and the U.S. states of Georgia and Mississippi.

1. ^ "49 U.S. Code § 46502 – Aircraft piracy". LII / Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on 2015-11-16. Retrieved 2015-12-06.
2. ^ "Swiss confirm Ethiopian plane hijack". 17 February 2014. Archived from the original on 18 February 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
3. ^ "Photos: Major aircraft hijackings that shocked the world". Mid-Day. Archived from the original on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 24 December 2014.
4. ^ "Air China pilot hijacks his own jet to Taiwan". CNN. 28 October 1998. Archived from the original on 21 March 2008. Retrieved 25 January 2007.
5. ^ B. Raman (2 January 2000). "Plane Hijacking in Perspective". South Asia Analysis Group. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 29 January 2015.
6. ^ Nelson, Libby (2016-03-29). "The US once had more than 130 hijackings in 4 years. Here's why they finally stopped". Vox. Archived from the original on 2019-06-29. Retrieved 2019-06-29.
7. ^ Lauri Puintila (2010). Kaappari Lamminparras: Suomen ensimmäisen konekaappauksen tarina (in Finnish). WSOY. ISBN 978-951-0-35501-5.
8. ^ "History of airliner hijackings". 2001-10-03. Archived from the original on 2019-06-28. Retrieved 2019-06-29.

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17 July 1962 – Nuclear weapons testing: The "Small Boy" test shot Little Feller I becomes the last atmospheric test detonation at the Nevada National Security Site.

Little Feller (nuclear tests)

1962 pair of nuclear tests conducted at the Nevada Test Site, United States

Little Feller II and Little Feller I were code names for a set of nuclear tests undertaken by the United States at the Nevada Test Site on July 7 and 17, 1962 as part of Operation Sunbeam. They were both tests of stockpiled W54 warheads, the smallest nuclear warheads known to have been produced by the United States, used in both the Davy Crockett warhead and the Special Atomic Demolition Munition.

In Little Feller II (July 7), the warhead was suspended only three feet above the ground and had a yield equivalent to 22 tons of TNT (92 GJ). In Little Feller I (July 17), the warhead was launched as a Davy Crockett device from a stationary 155 millimeter launcher and set to detonate between 20–40 feet (6.1–12.2 m) above the ground around 1.7 miles (2.7 km) from the launch point, with a yield of 18 tons of TNT (75 GJ). This test was performed in conjunction with Operation Ivy Flats, a simulated military environment, and was observed by Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and presidential adviser General Maxwell D. Taylor.

Little Feller I was the last near-ground atmospheric nuclear detonation conducted by the United States^[1] (the high altitude Fishbowl tests concluded in November 1962 with a detonation at around 69,000 feet (21 km) altitude).

All further tests were conducted underground, in accordance with the Partial Test Ban Treaty. An additional footnote is Operation Roller Coaster.^[1] Although this later series of tests involved no true nuclear detonation, they did disperse radioactive material using conventional explosives and thus may alternatively be considered the last aboveground nuclear test.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Operation Storax" Archived May 17, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, Carey Sublette, NuclearWeaponArchive.org

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18 July 1812 – The Treaties of Orebro end both the Anglo-Russian and Anglo-Swedish Wars.

Treaties of Örebro

1812 peace treaty between the UK, Sweden, and the Russian Empire

Two Treaties of Örebro^[1][a] were signed on the same day, 18 July 1812, in Örebro, Sweden. Negotiated by the British minister-plenipotentiary in Sweden, Edward Thornton, they formally ended the Anglo-Russian War (1807–1812) and the Anglo-Swedish War (1810–1812), neither of which had seen serious military conflict.^[2][3]

1. ^ The treaties were drawn up in French, the lingua franca of diplomacy at that time. Neither the original French nor the official English translation used a diacritic mark when spelling Örebro and so the official name is "Treaty of Orebro" (Great Britain Foreign and Commonwealth Office 1841, p. 13; Hansard 1812, pp. cols. 174, 175).
2. ^ Great Britain Foreign and Commonwealth Office 1841, pp. 13–17.
3. ^ Hansard 1812, pp. col. 174–177.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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19 July 1977 – The world's first Global Positioning System (GPS) signal was transmitted from Navigation Technology Satellite 2 (NTS-2) and received at Rockwell Collins in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, at 12:41 a.m. Eastern time (ET).

Global Positioning System

American satellite-based radio navigation service

This article is about the American global navigation satellite system. For similar systems, see Satellite navigation.

"GPS" redirects here. For GPS devices, see Satellite navigation device. For other uses, see GPS (disambiguation).

Artist's impression of GPS Block IIR satellite in Earth orbit

Civilian GPS receivers ("GPS navigation device") in a marine application

Automotive navigation system in a taxicab

An Air Force Space Command Senior Airman runs through a checklist during Global Positioning System satellite operations.

The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally Navstar GPS,^[2] is a satellite-based radio navigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Space Force.^[3] It is one of the global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) that provide geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.^[4] It does not require the user to transmit any data, and operates independently of any telephonic or Internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the GPS positioning information. It provides critical positioning capabilities to military, civil, and commercial users around the world. Although the United States government created, controls and maintains the GPS system, it is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.^[5]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Fiscal Year 2023 Program Funding". April 27, 2022. Retrieved September 24, 2023.
2. ^ United States Department of Transportation; Federal Aviation Administration (October 31, 2008). "Global Positioning System Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) Performance Standard" (PDF). p. B-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved January 3, 2012.
3. ^ United States Department of Defense (September 2008). "Global Positioning System Standard Positioning Service Performance Standard - 4th Edition" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 27, 2017. Retrieved April 21, 2017.
4. ^ Science Reference Section (November 19, 2019). "What is a GPS? How does it work?". Everyday Mysteries. Library of Congress. Archived from the original on April 12, 2022. Retrieved April 12, 2022.
5. ^ National Coordination Office for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing (February 22, 2021). "What is GPS?". Archived from the original on May 6, 2021. Retrieved May 5, 2021.

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20 July 1903 – The Ford Motor Company ships its first automobile.

Ford Motor Company

American multinational automobile manufacturer

"FORD" redirects here. For other uses, see Ford (disambiguation).

Ford Motor Company (commonly known as Ford) is an American multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, United States. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16, 1903. The company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand, and luxury cars under its Lincoln brand. Ford also owns a 32% stake in China's Jiangling Motors.^[7] It also has joint ventures in China (Changan Ford), Taiwan (Ford Lio Ho), Thailand (AutoAlliance Thailand), and Turkey (Ford Otosan). The company is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family; they have minority ownership but the majority of the voting power.^[5][8]

Ford introduced methods for large-scale manufacturing of cars and large-scale management of an industrial workforce using elaborately engineered manufacturing sequences typified by moving assembly lines; by 1914, these methods were known around the world as Fordism. Ford's former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000, respectively, were sold to the Indian automaker Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010.^[9] In the third quarter of 2010, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed upscale cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938.^[10]

Ford is the second-largest U.S.-based automaker (behind General Motors) and the sixth-largest in the world (behind Toyota, Volkswagen Group, Hyundai Motor Group, Stellantis, and General Motors) based on 2022 vehicle production.^[11] At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth-largest automaker in Europe.^[12] The company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent of the voting rights.^[5][13] During the financial crisis of 2007–08, the company struggled financially but did not have to be rescued by the federal government, unlike the other two major US automakers.^[14][15] Ford Motors has since returned to profitability,^[16] and was the eleventh-ranked overall American-based company in the 2018 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2017 of $156.7 billion.^[17] In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles^[18] and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants and facilities worldwide.

1. ^ Hyde, Charles K. (June 2005). "National Historic Landmark Nomination – Ford Piquette Avenue Plant" (PDF). National Park Service. p. 11. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 22, 2017. Retrieved August 18, 2017.
2. ^ "Ford Motor Company 2021 Annual Form 8-K Report" (PDF). cloudfront.net. December 31, 2021. Retrieved February 4, 2022.
3. ^ "Ford Motor Company 2023 Annual Report (Form 10-K)". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 7, 2024. Retrieved February 11, 2024.
4. ^ "Ford Motor Company: Shareholders, managers and business summary". 4-Traders. France. Archived from the original on July 18, 2018. Retrieved May 15, 2016.
5. ^ ^{a b c} Rogers, Christina (May 12, 2016). "Shareholders Again Back Ford Family". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on September 30, 2019. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
6. ^ Howard, Phoebe Wall (March 2, 2022). "Ford reveals radical plan to restructure automaker into three business units". Detroit Free Press. Retrieved March 3, 2022.
7. ^ "Jiangling Motors Corporation, Ltd. 2017 Annual Report" (PDF). JMC. pp. 27, 29. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved February 1, 2019 – via Sohu.
8. ^ Muller, Joann (December 2, 2010). "Ford Family's Stake Is Smaller, But They're Richer And Still Firmly In Control". Forbes. Archived from the original on June 20, 2019. Retrieved August 31, 2016.
9. ^ "Ford Motor Company Completes Sale of Volvo to Geely" (Press release). Ford Motor Company. August 2, 2010. Archived from the original on August 3, 2010. Retrieved August 2, 2010.
10. ^ Maynard, Micheline (June 2, 2010). "Ford to End Production of Its Mercury Line". The New York Times.
11. ^ "Worldwide car sales by manufacturer".
12. ^ "New Passenger Car Registrations by Manufacturer European Union (EU)". ACEA. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved January 28, 2011.
13. ^ Muller, Joann (March 9, 2014). "William Clay Ford's Legacy Cemented Family's Dynasty". Forbes. Archived from the original on November 16, 2018. Retrieved August 28, 2017.
14. ^ "Bush announces $17.4 billion auto bailout". Politico. December 19, 2008. Retrieved April 8, 2022.
15. ^ "Stopgap auto bailout to help GM, Chrysler". CNN Money. December 19, 2008. Retrieved April 8, 2022.
16. ^ Hammond, Lou Ann (January 13, 2011). "How Ford stayed strong through the financial crisis". Fortune. Archived from the original on July 2, 2018. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
17. ^ "Ford Motor". Fortune. Archived from the original on August 23, 2019. Retrieved November 9, 2018.
18. ^ "Ford Motor Company / 2008 Annual Report, Operating Highlights" (PDF). p. 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 19, 2011. Retrieved September 19, 2010.

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21 July 1925 – Scopes Trial: In Dayton, Tennessee, high school biology teacher John T. Scopes is found guilty of teaching human evolution in class and fined $100.

Scopes trial

1925 US legal case in Tennessee

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The Scopes trial, formally The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes, and commonly referred to as the Scopes Monkey Trial, was an American legal case from July 10 to July 21, 1925, in which a high school teacher, John T. Scopes, was accused of violating Tennessee's Butler Act, which had made it illegal for teachers to teach human evolution in any state-funded school.^[1] The trial was deliberately staged in order to attract publicity to the small town of Dayton, Tennessee, where it was held. Scopes was unsure whether he had ever actually taught evolution, but he incriminated himself deliberately so the case could have a defendant.^[2][3]

Scopes was found guilty and was fined $100 (equivalent to $1,700 in 2023), but the verdict was overturned on a technicality. The trial served its purpose of drawing intense national publicity, as national reporters flocked to Dayton to cover the high-profile lawyers who had agreed to represent each side. William Jennings Bryan, three-time presidential candidate and former secretary of state, argued for the prosecution, while Clarence Darrow served as the defense attorney for Scopes. The trial publicized the fundamentalist–modernist controversy, which set modernists, who said evolution could be consistent with religion,^[4] against fundamentalists, who said the word of God as revealed in the Bible took priority over all human knowledge. The case was thus seen both as a theological contest and as a trial on whether evolution should be taught in schools.

1. ^ "Tennessee Anti-evolution Statute—UMKC School of Law". umkc.edu. Archived from the original on May 20, 2009.
2. ^ Mark Paxton (2013). Media Perspectives on Intelligent Design and Evolution. ABC-CLIO. p. 105. ISBN 9780313380648.
3. ^ Charles Alan Israel (2004). Before Scopes: Evangelicalism, Education, and Evolution in Tennessee, 1870–1925. U of Georgia Press. p. 161. ISBN 9780820326450.
4. ^ Cotkin, George (2004) [1992]. Reluctant Modernism: American Thought and Culture, 1880–1900. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 7–14. ISBN 978-0-7425-3746-0. Retrieved October 5, 2013.

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22 July 1942 – Grossaktion Warsaw: The systematic deportation of Jews from the Warsaw ghetto begins.

Grossaktion Warsaw

Nazi operation to deport and murder Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto during WWII

The Grossaktion Warsaw ("Great Action") was the Nazi code name for the deportation and mass murder of Jews from the Warsaw Ghetto during the summer of 1942, beginning on 22 July.^[2] During the Grossaktion, Jews were terrorized in daily round-ups, marched through the ghetto, and assembled at the Umschlagplatz station square for what was called in the Nazi euphemistic jargon "resettlement to the East". From there, they were sent aboard overcrowded Holocaust trains to the extermination camp in Treblinka.^[3]

The largest number of Warsaw Jews were transported to their deaths at Treblinka in the period between the Jewish holidays Tisha B'Av (23 July) and Yom Kippur (21 September) in 1942. The killing centre had been completed 80 kilometres (50 mi) from Warsaw only weeks earlier, specifically for the Final Solution. Treblinka was equipped with gas chambers disguised as showers for the "processing" of entire transports of people. Led by the SS-leader Brigadeführer Odilo Globocnik, the campaign, codenamed Operation Reinhard, became the critical part of the Holocaust in occupied Poland.^[4]

1. ^ Holocaust Encyclopedia (10 June 2013). "Treblinka: Chronology". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original (Internet Archive) on 5 June 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2014. Deportations from Theresienstadt and Bulgarian-occupied territory among others.
2. ^ Shapiro, Robert Moses (1999). Holocaust Chronicles: Individualizing the Holocaust Through Diaries and Other Contemporaneous Personal Accounts. KTAV Publishing House, Inc. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-88125-630-7. ... the so-called Gross Aktion of July to September 1942... 300,000 Jews murdered by bullet of gas
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Urynowicz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Kopówka, Edward; Rytel-Andrianik, Paweł (2011), "Treblinka II – Obóz zagłady" [Monograph, chapt. 3: Treblinka II Death Camp] (PDF), Dam im imię na wieki [I will give them an everlasting name. Isaiah 56:5] (in Polish), Drohiczyńskie Towarzystwo Naukowe [The Drohiczyn Scientific Society], ISBN 978-83-7257-496-1, archived from the original (PDF file, direct download 20.2 MB) on 10 October 2014, retrieved 9 September 2013, with list of Catholic rescuers of Jews imprisoned at Treblinka, selected testimonies, bibliography, alphabetical indexes, photographs, English language summaries, and forewords by Holocaust scholars.

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23 July 1972 – The United States launches Landsat 1, the first Earth-resources satellite.

Landsat 1

First satellite of the United States' Landsat program, active 1972–78

"LS-1" redirects here. For other uses, see LS1.

Landsat 1 (LS-1), formerly named ERTS-A and ERTS-1, was the first satellite of the United States' Landsat program. It was a modified version of the Nimbus 4 meteorological satellite and was launched on July 23, 1972, by a Delta 900 rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.

It was the first satellite to carry a Multispectral Scanner.

The near-polar orbiting spacecraft served as a stabilized, Earth-oriented platform for obtaining information on agricultural and forestry resources, geology and mineral resources, hydrology and water resources, geography, cartography, environmental pollution, oceanography and marine resources, and meteorological phenomena.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference nssdc was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ McDowell, Jonathan. "Satellite Catalog". Jonathan's Space Page. Retrieved June 16, 2013.

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24 July 1969 – Apollo program: Apollo 11 splashes down safely in the Pacific Ocean.

Apollo 11

First crewed Moon landing (1969)

"First Moon landing" redirects here. For earlier uncrewed Moon landings, see Moon landing.

This article is about the 1969 crewed lunar mission. For other uses, see Apollo 11 (disambiguation).

Apollo 11 (July 16–24, 1969) was the American spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC, and Armstrong became the first person to step onto the Moon's surface six hours and 39 minutes later, on July 21 at 02:56 UTC. Aldrin joined him 19 minutes later, and they spent about two and a quarter hours together exploring the site they had named Tranquility Base upon landing. Armstrong and Aldrin collected 47.5 pounds (21.5 kg) of lunar material to bring back to Earth as pilot Michael Collins flew the Command Module Columbia in lunar orbit, and were on the Moon's surface for 21 hours, 36 minutes before lifting off to rejoin Columbia.

Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apollo spacecraft had three parts: a command module (CM) with a cabin for the three astronauts, the only part that returned to Earth; a service module (SM), which supported the command module with propulsion, electrical power, oxygen, and water; and a lunar module (LM) that had two stages—a descent stage for landing on the Moon and an ascent stage to place the astronauts back into lunar orbit.

After being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into Eagle and landed in the Sea of Tranquility on July 20. The astronauts used Eagle's ascent stage to lift off from the lunar surface and rejoin Collins in the command module. They jettisoned Eagle before they performed the maneuvers that propelled Columbia out of the last of its 30 lunar orbits onto a trajectory back to Earth.^[9] They returned to Earth and splashed down in the Pacific Ocean on July 24 after more than eight days in space.

Armstrong's first step onto the lunar surface was broadcast on live TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."^[a][15] Apollo 11 effectively proved U.S. victory in the Space Race to demonstrate spaceflight superiority, by fulfilling a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy, "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth."^[16]

1. ^ Byrne., Dave (July 8, 2019). "Apollo 11 Image Library". hq.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on February 24, 2020. Retrieved June 10, 2021.
2. ^ "Apollo 11 Command and Service Module (CSM)". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Archived from the original on February 10, 2021. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
3. ^ "Apollo 11 Lunar Module / EASEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Archived from the original on August 3, 2019. Retrieved November 20, 2019.
4. ^ ^{a b} "Apollo 11 Press Kit" (PDF). history.nasa.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 6, 2023. Retrieved December 16, 2022.
5. ^ "Ground Ignition Weights". history.nasa.gov. Retrieved May 31, 2022.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mission Overview was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ ^{a b c d e} "Apollo 11 Mission Summary". Smithsonian Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on February 9, 2021. Retrieved September 6, 2019.
8. ^ ^{a b} Orloff 2000, p. 106.
9. ^ ^{a b c d} Orloff 2000, p. 109.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference ALSJ 1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 97.
12. ^ Williams, David R. (December 11, 2003). "Apollo Landing Site Coordinates". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. NASA. Archived from the original on December 25, 2018. Retrieved October 18, 2021.
13. ^ Orloff 2000, p. 107.
14. ^ Jones, Eric (April 8, 2018). "One Small Step". Apollo 11 Lunar Surface Journal. Archived from the original on September 3, 2019. Retrieved September 6, 2019.
15. ^ Cite error: The named reference ALSJ 4 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ Stenger, Richard (May 25, 2001). "Man on the Moon: Kennedy speech ignited the dream". CNN. Archived from the original on June 6, 2010. Retrieved December 30, 2018.

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25 July 1934 – The Nazis assassinate Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss in a failed coup attempt.

Engelbert Dollfuss

Chancellor of Austria from 1932 to 1934

"Dollfuss" redirects here. Not to be confused with Dollfus.

Engelbert Dollfuß (alternatively: Dolfuss, German: [ˈɛŋəlbɛɐ̯t ˈdɔlfuːs]; 4 October 1892 – 25 July 1934) was an Austrian politician who served as Chancellor of Austria between 1932 and 1934. Having served as Minister for Forests and Agriculture, he ascended to Federal Chancellor in 1932 in the midst of a crisis for the conservative government. This crisis culminated in the Self-elimination of the Austrian Parliament, a coup sparked by resignation of the presiding officers of the National Council. Suppressing the Socialist movement in the Austrian Civil War and later banning the Austrian Nazi Party, he cemented the rule of Austrofascism through the First of May Constitution in 1934. Later that year, Dollfuss was assassinated as part of a failed coup attempt by Nazi agents. His successor Kurt Schuschnigg maintained the regime until Adolf Hitler's Anschluss in 1938.

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26 July 1951 – Walt Disney's 13th animated film, Alice in Wonderland, premieres in London, England, United Kingdom.

Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)

Animated film by Walt Disney

Alice in Wonderland is a 1951 American animated musical fantasy comedy film produced by Walt Disney Productions and released by RKO Radio Pictures. It is based on Lewis Carroll's 1865 novel Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and its 1871 sequel Through the Looking-Glass. The production was supervised by Ben Sharpsteen, and was directed by Clyde Geronimi, Wilfred Jackson, and Hamilton Luske. With the voices of Kathryn Beaumont, Ed Wynn, Richard Haydn, Sterling Holloway, Jerry Colonna, Verna Felton, J. Pat O'Malley, Bill Thompson, and Heather Angel, the film follows a young girl Alice who falls down a rabbit hole to enter a nonsensical world Wonderland that is ruled by the Queen of Hearts, while encountering strange creatures, including the Mad Hatter and the Cheshire Cat.

Walt Disney first tried to adapt Alice into a feature-length animated feature film in the 1930s starring Mary Pickford as Alice, but were scrapped in favor of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). However, the idea was eventually revived in the 1940s, following the success of Snow White. The film was originally intended to be a live-action/animated film, but Disney decided it would be the fully animated feature film. During its production, many sequences adapted from Carroll's books were later omitted, such as Jabberwocky, the White Knight, the Duchess, Mock Turtle and the Gryphon.

When it premiered at the Leicester Square Theatre in London on July 26, 1951, and in New York City on July 28, Alice in Wonderland was considered a disappointment, and was shown on television as one of the first episodes of Disneyland. Its 1974 re-release in theaters proved to be much more successful, leading to subsequent re-releases, merchandising and home video releases. Although the film received generally negative reviews on its initial release, it has been more positively reviewed over the years, being regarded as one of Disney's best animated films today.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Alice in Wonderland: Detail View". American Film Institute. Retrieved May 18, 2014.
2. ^ Barrier 2007, p. 230.

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27 July 1929 – The Geneva Convention of 1929, dealing with treatment of prisoners-of-war, is signed by 53 nations.

Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War

1929 international agreement outlining rules for the humane treatment of prisoners-of-war (POWs)

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War

The Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War was signed at Geneva, July 27, 1929. Its official name is the Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, Geneva July 27, 1929. It entered into force 19 June 1931.^[1] It is this version of the Geneva Conventions which covered the treatment of prisoners of war during World War II. It is the predecessor of the Third Geneva Convention signed in 1949.

On their web site, the International Committee of the Red Cross states that:

Provisions concerning the treatment of prisoners of war are contained in the Hague Regulations of 1899 and 1907. In the course of World War I they revealed several deficiencies as well as a lack of precision. Such defects were partly overcome by special agreements made between belligerents in Berne in 1917 and 1918. In 1921, the International Red Cross Conference held at Geneva expressed the wish that a special convention on the treatment of prisoners of war be adopted. The International Committee of the Red Cross drew up a draft convention which was submitted to the Diplomatic Conference convened at Geneva in 1929. The Convention does not replace but only completes the provisions of the Hague regulations. The most important innovations consisted in the prohibition of reprisals and collective penalties, the organization of prisoners' work, the designation, by the prisoners, of representatives and the control exercised by protecting Powers.^[2]

1. ^ "Treaties, States parties, and Commentaries - Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War, 1929". ihl-databases.icrc.org. Retrieved 7 June 2019.
2. ^ Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War. Geneva, 27 July 1929

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28 July 1635 – In the Eighty Years' War, the Spanish capture the strategic Dutch fortress of Schenkenschans.

Eighty Years' War

War in the Habsburg Netherlands (c. 1566/1568–1648)

The Eighty Years' War^{[note 10]} or Dutch Revolt (Dutch: Nederlandse Opstand) (c. 1566/1568–1648)^{[note 11]} was an armed conflict in the Habsburg Netherlands^{[note 12]} between disparate groups of rebels and the Spanish government. The causes of the war included the Reformation, centralisation, excessive taxation, and the rights and privileges of the Dutch nobility and cities.

After the initial stages, Philip II of Spain, the sovereign of the Netherlands, deployed his armies and regained control over most of the rebel-held territories. However, widespread mutinies in the Spanish army caused a general uprising. Under the leadership of the exiled William the Silent, the Catholic and Protestant-dominated provinces sought to establish religious peace while jointly opposing the king's regime with the Pacification of Ghent, but the general rebellion failed to sustain itself.

Despite Governor of Spanish Netherlands and General for Spain, the Duke of Parma's steady military and diplomatic successes, the Union of Utrecht continued their resistance, proclaiming their independence through the 1581 Act of Abjuration, and establishing the Calvinist-dominated Dutch Republic in 1588. In the Ten Years thereafter, the Republic (whose heartland was no longer threatened) made conquests in the north and east and received diplomatic recognition from France and England in 1596. The Dutch colonial empire emerged, which began with Dutch attacks on Portugal's overseas territories.

Facing a stalemate, the two sides agreed to a Twelve Years' Truce in 1609; when it expired in 1621, fighting resumed as part of the broader Thirty Years' War. An end was reached in 1648 with the Peace of Münster (a treaty part of the Peace of Westphalia), when Spain retained the Southern Netherlands and recognised the Dutch Republic as an independent country.

1. ^ ^{a b} van der Lem 1995, p. Chapter IV.
2. ^ Marek y Villarino de Brugge 2020b, v. II pp. 95-124.
3. ^ van der Lem 1995, p. Chapter V.
4. ^ Groenveld 2009, p. 16–17.
5. ^ Groenveld 2009, p. 10–11.
6. ^ Groenveld 2009, p. 18–19.
7. ^ Groenveld 2009, p. 21.
8. ^ Gallegos Vázquez, Federico (2014). "La dimensión internacional de la guerra de los Países Bajos". Guerra, derecho y política: Aproximaciones a una interacción inevitable (in Spanish). España: 45–64. ISBN 978-84-617-1675-3.
9. ^ "Francisco de Alençon". Diccionario Biográfico Español (in Spanish). Real Academia de la Historia. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
10. ^ Fernández Duro, Cesáreo (1900). Armada española desde la unión de los reinos de Castilla y Aragón (in Spanish). Vol. IV. Madrid, España: Instituto de Historia y Cultura Naval. p. 269.
11. ^ ^{a b} Aleixandre Tena, Francisca (1967). "La revolución portuguesa de 1640". Saitabi: Revista de la Facultat de Geografia i Història (in Spanish) (17). Valencia, España: 95–96. ISSN 0210-9980.
12. ^ Anderson, James Maxwell (2000). The History of Portugal. Greenwood. p. 105. ISBN 0-313-31106-4.
13. ^ van Nimwegen, Olaf (2010). The Dutch Army and the Military Revolutions, 1588-1688. Woodbridge, UK: The Boydell Press. pp. 217–234, 247–248. ISBN 978-1-84383-575-2.
14. ^ Groenveld 2009, p. 146.
15. ^ ^{a b} Tarver, H. Micheal; Slape, Emily (2016). The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 71.
16. ^ Martínez Shaw, Carlos (1999). "El imperio colonial español y la República Holandesa tras la Paz de Münster". Pedralbes: Revista d'historia moderna (in Spanish) (19). Barcelona, Spain: 117–120. ISSN 0211-9587.
17. ^ Clodfelter, M. Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (4th ed.). p. 17.
18. ^ Fissel p 188
19. ^ Wilson 2009, p. 1309.
20. ^ ^{a b c} Wilson 2009, p. 316.
21. ^ Wilson 2009, p. 1440.

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29 July 1957 – The International Atomic Energy Agency is established.

International Atomic Energy Agency

International organization

Vienna (HQ)

New York

Geneva

Seibersdorf

Monaco

Toronto

Tokyo

Trieste

class=notpageimage|

IAEA's worldwide sites:^[3]

In Europe:

• Vienna – Headquarters
• Geneva – Liaison Office
• Monaco – Laboratory/Research Centre
• Seibersdorf – Laboratory/Research Centre
• Trieste – Laboratory/Research Centre

In North America:

• New York City – Liaison Office
• Toronto – Regional Safeguard Office

In Asia:

• Tokyo – Regional Safeguard Office

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is an intergovernmental organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons. It was established in 1957 as an autonomous organization within the United Nations system;^[4][5] though governed by its own founding treaty, the organization reports to both the General Assembly and the Security Council of the United Nations, and is headquartered at the UN Office at Vienna, Austria.

The IAEA was created in response to growing international concern toward nuclear weapons, especially amid rising tensions between the foremost nuclear powers, the United States and the Soviet Union.^[4] U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower's "Atoms for Peace" speech, which called for the creation of an international organization to monitor the global proliferation of nuclear resources and technology, is credited with catalyzing the formation of the IAEA, whose treaty came into force on 29 July 1957 upon U.S. ratification.

The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical cooperation on the peaceful use of nuclear technology and nuclear power worldwide. It maintains several programs that encourage the development of peaceful applications of nuclear energy, science, and technology; provide international safeguards against misuse of nuclear technology and nuclear materials; and promote and implement nuclear safety (including radiation protection) and nuclear security standards. The organization also conducts research in nuclear science and provides technical support and training in nuclear technology to countries worldwide, particularly in the developing world.^[6]

Following the ratification of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in 1968, all non-nuclear powers are required to negotiate a safeguards agreement with the IAEA, which is given the authority to monitor nuclear programs and to inspect nuclear facilities. In 2005, the IAEA and its administrative head, Director General Mohamed ElBaradei, were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for their efforts to prevent nuclear energy from being used for military purposes and to ensure that nuclear energy for peaceful purposes is used in the safest possible way".^[7]

1. ^ "List of Member States". www.iaea.org. 8 June 2016.
2. ^ (IAEA), International Atomic Energy Agency. "IAEA ANNUAL REPORT 2022" (PDF). www.iaea.org. p. 6. Retrieved 3 March 2024.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Offices was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ ^{a b} "History". IAEA. 8 June 2016. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
5. ^ IAEA Factsheet, Archived 13 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (2015)
6. ^ "International Atomic Energy Agency". Britannica. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
7. ^ Nations, United. "2005 - International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and Mohamed ElBaradei". United Nations.

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30 July 2003 – In Mexico, the last 'old style' Volkswagen Beetle rolls off the assembly line.

Volkswagen Beetle

Small family car (1938–2003)

This article is about the original Volkswagen Beetle. For the 1997–2011 car, see Volkswagen New Beetle. For the 2011–2019 car, see Volkswagen Beetle (A5).

Motor vehicle

The Volkswagen Beetle, officially the Volkswagen Type 1,^[a] is a small car produced by the German company Volkswagen from 1938 to 2003.^[b] It is one of the most iconic cars in automotive history, recognised for its distinctive shape. Its production period of 65 years is the longest of any single generation of automobile,^[c] and its total production of over 21.5 million is the most of any car of a single platform.

The Beetle was conceived in the early 1930s. The leader of Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, decided there was a need for a people's car^[d] to serve Germany's new road network, the Reichsautobahn. The German engineer Ferdinand Porsche and his design team began developing and designing the car in the early 1930s. But the fundamental design concept can be attributed to Béla Barényi in 1925, predating Porsche's^[e] claims by over five years. The result was the Volkswagen Type 1 and the introduction of the Volkswagen brand. Volkswagen initially slated production for the late 1930s, but the outbreak of war in 1939 meant that production was delayed until the war had ended. The car was originally called the Volkswagen Type 1 and marketed simply as the Volkswagen, but it was not until 1968 that it was officially named the "Beetle".

Volkswagen implemented designations for the Beetle in the 1960s, including 1200, 1300, 1500, 1600, 1302 and 1303. Volkswagen introduced a series of large luxury models throughout the 1960 and 70s—comprising the Type 3, Type 4 and the K70—to supplement the Beetle, but none of these models achieved the level of success that it did. Rapidly changing consumer preferences toward front-wheel drive compact hatchbacks in Europe prompted Volkswagen's gradual shift away from rear-wheel drive, starting with the Golf in 1974. In the late 1970s and 80s, Japanese automakers began to dominate the market, which contributed to the Beetle's declining popularity.

Over its lifespan, the Beetle's design remained consistent, yet Volkswagen implemented over 78,000 incremental updates. These modifications were often subtle, involving minor alterations to its exterior, interior, colours, and lighting. Some more noteworthy changes included the introduction of new engines, models and systems, such as improved technology or comfort.

1. ^ Meredith, Robyn (4 January 1998), "With New Beetle Come Wistful Hints of Old Flame", The New York Times, archived from the original on 17 January 2024, retrieved 16 February 2024
2. ^ Faragher 2005, p. 7.
3. ^ Dowling, Joshua (13 July 2019), "Bye-bye Beetle, thanks for the memories", The Age, archived from the original on 14 July 2019, retrieved 14 March 2024
4. ^ Dorger, Samanda (27 December 2021), "The Car Models That Have Been Around the Longest", TheStreet, archived from the original on 24 December 2023, retrieved 16 February 2024

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31 July 1971 – Apollo program: the Apollo 15 astronauts become the first to ride in a lunar rover.

Apollo 15

Fourth crewed Moon landing

Apollo 15 (July 26 – August 7, 1971) was the ninth crewed mission in the United States' Apollo program and the fourth to land on the Moon. It was the first J mission, with a longer stay on the Moon and a greater focus on science than earlier landings. Apollo 15 saw the first use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle.

The mission began on July 26 and ended on August 7, with the lunar surface exploration taking place between July 30 and August 2. Commander David Scott and Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin landed near Hadley Rille and explored the local area using the rover, allowing them to travel further from the lunar module than had been possible on previous missions. They spent 181⁄2 hours on the Moon's surface on four extravehicular activities (EVA), and collected 170 pounds (77 kg) of surface material.

At the same time, Command Module Pilot Alfred Worden orbited the Moon, operating the sensors in the scientific instrument module (SIM) bay of the service module. This suite of instruments collected data on the Moon and its environment using a panoramic camera, a gamma-ray spectrometer, a mapping camera, a laser altimeter, a mass spectrometer, and a lunar subsatellite deployed at the end of the moonwalks. The lunar module returned safely to the command module and, at the end of Apollo 15's 74th lunar orbit,^[18] the engine was fired for the journey home. During the return trip, Worden performed the first spacewalk in deep space. The Apollo 15 mission splashed down safely on August 7 despite the loss of one of its three parachutes.

The mission accomplished its goals but was marred by negative publicity the following year when it emerged that the crew had carried unauthorized postal covers to the lunar surface, some of which were sold by a West German stamp dealer. The members of the crew were reprimanded for poor judgment, and did not fly in space again. The mission also saw the collection of the Genesis Rock, thought to be part of the Moon's early crust, and Scott's use of a hammer and a feather to validate Galileo's theory that when there is no air resistance, objects fall at the same rate due to gravity regardless of their mass.

1. ^ Orloff, Richard W. (2004) [2000]. "Table of Contents". Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference. NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-050631-4. Archived from the original on August 23, 2007. Retrieved July 18, 2009.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} Cite error: The named reference Apollo 15 CSM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b c} "Apollo 15 Lunar Module /ALSEP". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved March 8, 2019.
4. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Mission Report, p. 3.
5. ^ "Apollo 15 Command Module". Smithsonian Air and Space Museum. March 17, 2016. Archived from the original on July 22, 2019. Retrieved January 29, 2019.
6. ^ "Lunar Module LM-2". Smithsonian Air and Space Museum. March 21, 2016. Archived from the original on January 15, 2020. Retrieved March 7, 2019.
7. ^ Mission Report, p. 263.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l} Orloff, Richard W. (2005) [2000]. "Apollo 15 timeline". Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference. NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-050631-4. Retrieved January 29, 2019.
9. ^ Mission Report, p. 1.
10. ^ Orloff & Harland, p. 426.
11. ^ ^{a b c d e} Mission Report, pp. 10–11.
12. ^ ^{a b} Orloff, Richard W. (2005) [2000]. "Apollo 15 The Ninth Mission: The Fourth Lunar Landing 26 July–7 August 1971". Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference. NASA History Series. Washington, D.C.: NASA. ISBN 978-0-16-050631-4. Retrieved January 29, 2019.
13. ^ "NASA NSSDC Master Catalog – Apollo 15 LM descent stage". NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive. Retrieved January 6, 2019.
14. ^ Mission Report, p. 15.
15. ^ Mission Report, pp. 15–16.
16. ^ Mission Report, p. 16.
17. ^ Cite error: The named reference presskit was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
18. ^ "APOLLO 15". history.nasa.gov.

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1 August 1907 – The start of the first Scout camp on Brownsea Island, the origin of the worldwide Scouting movement.

Brownsea Island Scout camp

1907 location of first Scout camp

The Brownsea Island Scout camp was the site of a boys' camping event on Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour, southern England, organised by Lieutenant-General Baden-Powell to test his ideas for the book Scouting for Boys. Boys from different social backgrounds participated from 1 to 8 August 1907 in activities around camping, observation, woodcraft, chivalry, lifesaving and patriotism. The event is regarded as the origin of the worldwide Scout movement.

Up to the early 1930s, Boy Scouts continued to camp on Brownsea Island. In 1963, a formal 50-acre (20 ha) Scout campsite was opened by Olave Baden-Powell when the island became a nature conservation area owned by the National Trust. In 1973, a Scout Jamboree with six hundred Scouts was held on the island.

The worldwide centenary of Scouting took place at the Brownsea Island Scout camp, celebrated on 1 August 2007, the 100th anniversary of the start of the first encampment. Activities by The Scout Association at the campsite included four Scout camps and a Sunrise Ceremony.

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2 August 1776 – The signing of the United States Declaration of Independence took place.

United States Declaration of Independence

1776 American national founding document

The Declaration of Independence, formally titled The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America (in the engrossed version but not the original printing), is the founding document of the United States. On July 4, 1776, it was adopted unanimously by the 56 delegates to the Second Continental Congress, who had convened at the Pennsylvania State House, later renamed Independence Hall, in the colonial era capital of Philadelphia. The declaration explains to the world why the Thirteen Colonies regarded themselves as independent sovereign states no longer subject to British colonial rule.

The 56 delegates who signed the Declaration of Independence came to be known as the nation's Founding Fathers, and the Declaration has become one of the most circulated, reprinted, and influential documents in world history.

The Second Continental Congress charged the Committee of Five, including John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert R. Livingston, and Roger Sherman, with authoring the Declaration. Adams, a leading proponent of independence, persuaded the Committee of Five to charge Jefferson with writing the document's original draft, which the Second Continental Congress then edited. Jefferson largely wrote the Declaration in isolation between June 11 and June 28, 1776, from the second floor of a three-story home he was renting at 700 Market Street in Philadelphia.

The Declaration was a formal explanation of why the Continental Congress voted to declare American independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, a year after the American Revolutionary War began in April 1775. Two days prior to the Declaration's unanimous adoption, the Second Continental Congress unanimously passed the Lee Resolution, which established the consensus of the Congress that the British had no governing authority over the Thirteen Colonies.

After ratifying the text on July 4, Congress issued the Declaration of Independence in several forms. It was published as the printed Dunlap broadside that was widely distributed. The Declaration was first read to the public simultaneously at noon on July 8, 1776, in three exclusively designated locations: Easton, Pennsylvania; Philadelphia; and Trenton, New Jersey.^[2]

What Jefferson called his "original Rough draft", one of several revisions,^[3] is currently preserved at the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., complete with changes made by Adams and Benjamin Franklin, and Jefferson's notes of changes made by Congress. The best-known version of the Declaration is the signed copy now displayed at the National Archives in Washington, D.C., which is popularly regarded as the official document; this copy, engrossed by Timothy Matlack, was ordered by Congress on July 19 and signed primarily on August 2, 1776.^[4][5]

The Declaration justified the independence of the United States by listing 27 colonial grievances against King George III and by asserting certain natural and legal rights, including a right of revolution. Its original purpose was to announce independence, and references to the text of the declaration were few in the following years. On November 19, 1863, following the Battle of Gettysburg, the bloodiest battle of the American Civil War, Abraham Lincoln made the Declaration the centerpiece of his Gettysburg Address, a brief but powerful and enduring 271-word statement dedicating what is now Gettysburg National Cemetery.^[6]

The Declaration of Independence has proven an influential and globally impactful statement on human rights, particularly its second sentence: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." Stephen Lucas called the Declaration of Independence "one of the best-known sentences in the English language."^[7] Historian Joseph Ellis has written that the document contains "the most potent and consequential words in American history".^[8] The passage came to represent a moral standard to which the United States should strive. This view was notably promoted by Lincoln, who considered the Declaration to be the foundation of his political philosophy and argued that it is a statement of principles through which the United States Constitution should be interpreted.^[9]: 126

The 56 delegates who signed the declaration represented each of the Thirteen Colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia.

The Declaration of Independence inspired many similar documents in other countries, the first being the 1789 Declaration of United Belgian States issued during the Brabant Revolution in the Austrian Netherlands. It also served as the primary model for numerous declarations of independence in Europe, Latin America, Africa, and Oceania following its adoption.^[10]: 113

1. ^ Becker, Carl L. (1970) [1922]. The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas (Revised ed.). New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-394-70060-0.
2. ^ "The Declaration of Independence in Easton", The Historical Database]
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference journals.psu.edu was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Did You Know ... Independence Day Should Actually Be July 2?" (Press release). National Archives and Records Administration. June 1, 2005. Archived from the original on June 26, 2012. Retrieved July 4, 2012.
5. ^ "The Declaration of Independence: A History". The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. January 17, 2010. Archived from the original on September 17, 2008. Retrieved January 15, 2022.
6. ^ Hirsch, David; Van Haften, Dan (2017). The ultimate guide to the Declaration of Independence (First ed.). El Dorado Hills, California. ISBN 978-1-61121-374-4. OCLC 990127604.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
7. ^ Lucas, Stephen E. (1989). "Justifying America: The Declaration of Independence as a Rhetorical Document". In Benson, Thomas W. (ed.). American Rhetoric: Context and Criticism. Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University Press. p. 85.
8. ^ Ellis, Joseph (2007). American Creation: Triumphs and Tragedies at the Founding of the Republic. New York: Knopf. pp. 55–56. ISBN 978-0-307-26369-8.
9. ^ McPherson, James (1991). Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505542-X.
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference Global History was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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3 August 1958 – The world's first nuclear submarine, the USS Nautilus, becomes the first vessel to complete a submerged transit of the geographical North Pole.

USS Nautilus (SSN-571)

First nuclear-powered submarine of the US Navy, in service from 1954 to 1980

For other ships with the same name, see USS Nautilus and Ships named Nautilus.

USS Nautilus (SSN-571) was the world's first operational nuclear-powered submarine and the first submarine to complete a submerged transit of the North Pole on 3 August 1958. Her initial commanding officer was Eugene "Dennis" Wilkinson, a widely respected naval officer who set the stage for many of the protocols of today's Nuclear Navy of the US, and who had a storied career during military service and afterwards.^[7]

Sharing a name with Captain Nemo's fictional submarine in Jules Verne's classic 1870 science fiction novel Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea^[8] and the USS Nautilus (SS-168) that served with distinction in World War II,^[9] the new nuclear-powered Nautilus was authorized in 1951. Construction began in 1952, and the boat was launched in January 1954, sponsored by Mamie Eisenhower, First Lady of the United States, wife of 34th President Dwight D. Eisenhower; it was commissioned the following September into the United States Navy. Nautilus was delivered to the Navy in 1955.

Because her nuclear propulsion allowed her to remain submerged far longer than diesel-electric submarines, she broke many records in her first years of operation and traveled to locations previously beyond the limits of submarines. In operation, she revealed a number of limitations in her design and construction. This information was used to improve subsequent submarines.

Nautilus was decommissioned in 1980 and designated a National Historic Landmark in 1982. The submarine has been preserved as a museum ship at the Submarine Force Library and Museum in Groton, Connecticut, where the vessel receives around 250,000 visitors per year.

1. ^ "Nautilus IV (SSN-571)".
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference DANFS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Christley, Jim; Bryan, Tony. US Nuclear Submarines: The Fast Attack. Osprey.
4. ^ Polmar, Norman; Moore, Kenneth J. Cold War submarines: the design and construction of US and Soviet submarines. Brassey's.
5. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 23 January 2007.
6. ^ "Nautilus (Nuclear Submarine)". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved 3 October 2007.
7. ^ Winters, Ann (28 March 2017). "Underway on Nuclear Power" -- The Man Behind the Words: Eugene P. "Dennis" Wilkinson, Vice Admiral USN. The American Nuclear Society.
8. ^ Verne, Jules. 20,000 Leagues Under the Seas. Translated by Frederick Paul Walter – via Wikisource.
9. ^ "Nautilus III (SS-168)". public1.nhhcaws.local. Retrieved 17 January 2021.^{[permanent dead link]}

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4 August 1791 – The Treaty of Sistova is signed, ending the Ottoman–Habsburg wars.

Treaty of Sistova

Treaty ending the Austro-Turkish War of 1787–91

Leopold II

Selim III

The Treaty of Sistova ended the last Austro-Turkish war (1787–91). Brokered by Great Britain, Prussia and the Netherlands,^[1] it was signed in Sistova (modern Svishtov) in Bulgaria on 4 August 1791.^[2] The treaty was written in French and Turkish.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b} The Peace Treaties of the Ottoman Empire, Karl-Heinz Ziegler, 'Peace Treaties and International Law in European History: From the Late Middle Ages to World War One, ed. Randall Lesaffer, (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 358.
2. ^ Jeremy Black, British Foreign Policy in an Age of Revolutions, 1783–1793, (Cambridge University Press, 1994), 263.

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5 August 1962 – Apartheid: Nelson Mandela is jailed. He would not be released until 1990.

Nelson Mandela

President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999

"Mandela" redirects here. Not to be confused with Mandala. For other uses, see Mandela (disambiguation) and Nelson Mandela (disambiguation).

Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (/mænˈdɛlə/ man-DEH-lə;^[1] Xhosa: [xolíɬaɬa mandɛ̂ːla]; born Rolihlahla Mandela; 18 July 1918 – 5 December 2013) was a South African anti-apartheid activist, politician, and statesman who served as the first president of South Africa from 1994 to 1999. He was the country's first black head of state and the first elected in a fully representative democratic election. His government focused on dismantling the legacy of apartheid by fostering racial reconciliation. Ideologically an African nationalist and socialist, he served as the president of the African National Congress (ANC) party from 1991 to 1997.

A Xhosa, Mandela was born into the Thembu royal family in Mvezo, South Africa. He studied law at the University of Fort Hare and the University of Witwatersrand before working as a lawyer in Johannesburg. There he became involved in anti-colonial and African nationalist politics, joining the ANC in 1943 and co-founding its Youth League in 1944. After the National Party's white-only government established apartheid, a system of racial segregation that privileged whites, Mandela and the ANC committed themselves to its overthrow. He was appointed president of the ANC's Transvaal branch, rising to prominence for his involvement in the 1952 Defiance Campaign and the 1955 Congress of the People. He was repeatedly arrested for seditious activities and was unsuccessfully prosecuted in the 1956 Treason Trial. Influenced by Marxism, he secretly joined the banned South African Communist Party (SACP). Although initially committed to non-violent protest, in association with the SACP he co-founded the militant uMkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 and led a sabotage campaign against the government. He was arrested and imprisoned in 1962, and, following the Rivonia Trial, was sentenced to life imprisonment for conspiring to overthrow the state.

Mandela served 27 years in prison, split between Robben Island, Pollsmoor Prison and Victor Verster Prison. Amid growing domestic and international pressure and fears of racial civil war, President F. W. de Klerk released him in 1990. Mandela and de Klerk led efforts to negotiate an end to apartheid, which resulted in the 1994 multiracial general election in which Mandela led the ANC to victory and became president. Leading a broad coalition government which promulgated a new constitution, Mandela emphasised reconciliation between the country's racial groups and created the Truth and Reconciliation Commission to investigate past human rights abuses. Economically, his administration retained its predecessor's liberal framework despite his own socialist beliefs, also introducing measures to encourage land reform, combat poverty and expand healthcare services. Internationally, Mandela acted as mediator in the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial and served as secretary-general of the Non-Aligned Movement from 1998 to 1999. He declined a second presidential term and was succeeded by his deputy, Thabo Mbeki. Mandela became an elder statesman and focused on combating poverty and HIV/AIDS through the charitable Nelson Mandela Foundation.

Mandela was a controversial figure for much of his life. Although critics on the right denounced him as a communist terrorist and those on the far left deemed him too eager to negotiate and reconcile with apartheid's supporters, he gained international acclaim for his activism. Globally regarded as an icon of democracy and social justice, he received more than 250 honours, including the Nobel Peace Prize. He is held in deep respect within South Africa, where he is often referred to by his Thembu clan name, Madiba, and described as the "Father of the Nation".

1. ^ "Mandela". Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 5 April 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2013.

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6 August 2012 – NASA's Curiosity rover lands on the surface of Mars.

Curiosity (rover)

NASA robotic rover exploring Gale crater on Mars

Curiosity is a car-sized Mars rover exploring Gale crater and Mount Sharp on Mars as part of NASA's Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission.^[2] Curiosity was launched from Cape Canaveral (CCAFS) on November 26, 2011, at 15:02:00 UTC and landed on Aeolis Palus inside Gale crater on Mars on August 6, 2012, 05:17:57 UTC.^[3][4][5] The Bradbury Landing site was less than 2.4 km (1.5 mi) from the center of the rover's touchdown target after a 560 million km (350 million mi) journey.^[6][7]

Mission goals include an investigation of the Martian climate and geology, assessment of whether the selected field site inside Gale has ever offered environmental conditions favorable for microbial life (including investigation of the role of water), and planetary habitability studies in preparation for human exploration.^[8][9]

In December 2012, Curiosity's two-year mission was extended indefinitely,^[10] and on August 5, 2017, NASA celebrated the fifth anniversary of the Curiosity rover landing.^[11][12] On August 6, 2022, a detailed overview of accomplishments by the Curiosity rover for the last ten years was reported.^[13] The rover is still operational, and as of 26 April 2024, Curiosity has been active on Mars for 4167 sols (4281 total days; 11 years, 264 days) since its landing (see current status).

The NASA/JPL Mars Science Laboratory/Curiosity Project Team was awarded the 2012 Robert J. Collier Trophy by the National Aeronautic Association "In recognition of the extraordinary achievements of successfully landing Curiosity on Mars, advancing the nation's technological and engineering capabilities, and significantly improving humanity's understanding of ancient Martian habitable environments."^[14] Curiosity's rover design serves as the basis for NASA's 2021 Perseverance mission, which carries different scientific instruments.

1. ^ "Where Is Curiosity?". mars.nasa.gov. NASA. Retrieved December 29, 2023. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference NASA-Curiosity was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Abilleira2013 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference bbc20120808 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference youtube1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference NASA-20120822 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference autogenerated1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference overview was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference goals was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference 3news.nz was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference NASA-20170802 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference SP-20170805 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Chang, Ailsa (August 6, 2022). "What a decade of Curiosity has taught us about life on Mars". NPR. Retrieved August 6, 2022.
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference NAA-20130312 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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7 August 1981 – The Washington Star ceases all operations after 128 years of publication

The Washington Star

Washington, D.C. newspaper (1852–1981)

The Washington Star, previously known as the Washington Star-News and the Washington Evening Star, was a daily afternoon newspaper published in Washington, D.C., between 1852 and 1981. The Sunday edition was known as the Sunday Star.^[1] The paper was renamed several times before becoming Washington Star by the late 1970s.

For most of the time it was publishing, The Washington Star was the city's newspaper of record and the longtime home to columnist Mary McGrory and cartoonist Clifford K. Berryman. On August 7, 1981, after 128 years, The Washington Star ceased publication and filed for bankruptcy. In the bankruptcy sale, The Washington Post purchased the land and buildings owned by The Washington Star, including its printing presses.

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference LCCN sn79002331 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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8 August 1942 – Quit India Movement is launched in India against the British rule in response to Mohandas Gandhi's call for swaraj or complete independence

Quit India Movement

Indian freedom movement against the British

The Quit India Movement was a movement launched at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee by Mahatma Gandhi on 8 August 1942, during World War II, demanding an end to British rule in India.

After the British failed to secure Indian support for the British war effort with the Cripps Mission, Gandhi made a call to Do or Die in his Quit India speech delivered in Bombay on 8 August 1942 at the Gowalia Tank Maidan. Viceroy Linlithgow remarked the movement to be "by far the most serious rebellion since 1857".^[5][6]

The All India Congress Committee launched a mass protest demanding what Gandhi called "An Orderly British Withdrawal" from India. Even though it was at war, Britain was prepared to act. Almost the entire leadership of the Indian National Congress was imprisoned without trial within hours of Gandhi's speech. Most spent the rest of the war in prison and out of contact with the masses. The British had the support of the Viceroy's Council, of the All India Muslim League, the Hindu Mahasabha, the princely states, the Indian Imperial Police, the British Indian Army, and the Indian Civil Service. Many Indian businessmen profiting from heavy wartime spending did not support the Quit India Movement. The major outside support came from the Americans, as President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressured Prime Minister Winston Churchill to give in to some of the Indian demands.^[7]

The movement included boycotting the British government and rejection of transactions involving the government. Various violent incidents took place around the country against the British regime. The British arrested tens of thousands of leaders, keeping them imprisoned until 1945. Ultimately, the British government realised that India was ungovernable in the long run, and the issue for the postwar era became how to exit gracefully and peacefully.^[8][9]

The movement ended in 1945 with the release of jailed freedom fighters. Martyrs of this freedom movement include Mukunda Kakati, Matangini Hazra, Kanaklata Barua, Kushal Konwar, Bhogeswari Phukanani and others.^[10] In 1992, the Reserve Bank of India issued a 1 rupee commemorative coin to mark the Golden Jubilee of the Quit India Movement.^[11]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Kumar, Raj (2003). Essays on Indian Freedom Movement. History and culture series. Discovery Publishing House. p. 108. ISBN 978-81-7141-705-6.
2. ^ Douglas Allen. The Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi for the Twenty-First Century. Lexington Books. p. 228.
3. ^ Green, Jen (2013). Gandhi and the Quit India Movement. Capstone Global Library. p. 38. ISBN 978-1-4062-6909-3.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Arnold, David (2014). Gandhi. Profiles In Power. Taylor & Francis. p. 194. ISBN 978-1-317-88234-3.
5. ^ Panigrahi, Devendra (2004). India's Partition: The Story of Imperialism in Retreat. Taylor & Francis. p. 403. ISBN 978-1-135-76812-6.
6. ^ Rose, Patrick; Jeffreys, A. (2016). The Indian Army, 1939–47: Experience and Development. Taylor & Francis. p. 232. ISBN 978-1-317-02764-5.
7. ^ Herman, Arthur (2008). Gandhi & Churchill: The Epic Rivalry that Destroyed an Empire and Forged Our Age. Random House. p. 359. ISBN 978-0-553-90504-5. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016.
8. ^ Zachariah, Benjamin (1 March 2011). "Zachariah, 'Gandhi, Non-Violence and Indian Independence'". History Review.
9. ^ "Do or Die: The Quit India Movement of 1942". The Nonviolence Project. 19 August 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
10. ^ Kanaka Mukhārji. Women's Emancipation Movement in India. National Book Centre. p. 67.
11. ^ "1 Rupee Coin of 1992 – Quit India Movement Golden Jubilee". YouTube. Archived from the original on 6 April 2017. Retrieved 12 March 2017.

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9 August 1500 – Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503): The Ottomans capture Methoni, Messenia.

Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503)

Second conflict between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice

The Second Ottoman–Venetian War was fought from 1499 to 1503 between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice for control of contested lands in the Aegean Sea, the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic Sea.

The Ottomans, under the command of Admiral Kemal Reis, were victorious and forced the Venetians to recognise their gains at the end of the war.

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10 August 1990 – The Magellan space probe reaches Venus.

Magellan (spacecraft)

NASA mission to map the surface of Venus via robotic probe (launched 1989)

The Magellan spacecraft was a 1,035-kilogram (2,282 lb) robotic space probe launched by NASA of the United States, on May 4, 1989, to map the surface of Venus by using synthetic-aperture radar and to measure the planetary gravitational field.

The Magellan probe was the first interplanetary mission to be launched from the Space Shuttle, the first one to use the Inertial Upper Stage booster, and the first spacecraft to test aerobraking as a method for circularizing its orbit. Magellan was the fifth successful NASA mission to Venus, and it ended an eleven-year gap in U.S. interplanetary probe launches.

1. ^ "Magellan". NASA's Solar System Exploration website. Retrieved November 30, 2022.

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11 August 1934 – The first civilian prisoners arrive at the Federal prison on Alcatraz Island.

Alcatraz Island

Island in San Francisco Bay, California, U.S.

"Alcatraz" redirects here. For the former prison on the island, see Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary. For other uses, see Alcatraz (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Alcatrazes Islands.

Alcatraz Island (/ˈælkəˌtræz/) is a small island 1.25 miles (2.01 km) offshore from San Francisco, California, United States.^[1] The island was developed in the mid-19th century with facilities for a lighthouse, a military fortification, and a military prison. In 1934, the island was converted into a federal prison, Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary. The strong currents around the island and cold water temperatures made escape nearly impossible, and the prison became one of the most notorious in American history.^[4] The prison closed in 1963, and the island is now a major tourist attraction.

Beginning in November 1969, the island was occupied for more than 19 months by a group of Native Americans, initially primarily from San Francisco, who were later joined by AIM and other urban Indians from other parts of the country, who were part of a wave of Native American activists organizing public protests across the US through the 1970s. In 1972, Alcatraz was transferred to the Department of Interior to become part of Golden Gate National Recreation Area. It was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1986.

Today, the island's facilities are managed by the National Park Service as part of Golden Gate National Recreation Area. Visitors can reach the island by ferry ride from Pier 33, located between the San Francisco Ferry Building and Fisherman's Wharf, San Francisco. Hornblower Cruises, operating under the name Alcatraz Cruises, is the official ferry provider to and from the island.

Alcatraz Island is the site of the abandoned federal prison, the oldest operating lighthouse on the West Coast of the United States, early military fortifications, and natural features such as rock pools and a seabird colony (mostly western gulls, cormorants, and egrets). According to a 1971 documentary on the history of Alcatraz, the island measures 1,675 feet (511 m) by 590 feet (180 m) and is 135 feet (41 m) at highest point during mean tide.^[5] The total area of the island is reported to be 22 acres (8.9 ha).^[1]

Landmarks on the island include the Main Cellhouse, Dining Hall, Lighthouse, the ruins of the Warden's House and Social Hall, Parade Grounds, Building 64, Water Tower, New Industries Building, Model Industries Building, and the Recreation Yard.

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Alcatraz Island". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Retrieved August 20, 2009.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference nris was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference nhlsum was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Odier, Odier (1982). The Rock: A History of Alcatraz: The Fort/The Prison. L'Image Odier. ISBN 0-9611632-0-8.
5. ^ "This Is An Alcatraz Documentary (Part 1)". Narrated by Howard Duff. 1971. Archived from the original on October 29, 2021. Retrieved August 30, 2012.

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