This day in .....

12 August 1994 – Major League Baseball players go on strike, eventually forcing the cancellation of the 1994 World Series.

1994 World Series

Championship series of Major League Baseball's 1994 season; canceled due to striking players

The 1994 World Series was the scheduled championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 1994 season. It was canceled due to a strike by the MLB Players Association.^[1] The cancelation marked the second time a World Series was not played in a given season and the first since 1904.

1. ^ Chass, Murray (September 15, 1994). "BASEBALL: THE SEASON; Owners Terminate Season, Without the World Series". The New York Times. p. A1.

Read More

 

13 August 1645 – Sweden and Denmark sign Peace of Brömsebro.

Second Treaty of Brömsebro (1645)

Peace treaty between Sweden and Denmark–Norway

This article is about the 1645 treaty. For other treaties, see Treaty of Brömsebro (disambiguation).

The Second Treaty of Brömsebro (or the Peace of Brömsebro) was signed on 13 August 1645, and ended the Torstenson War, a local conflict that began in 1643 (and was part of the larger Thirty Years' War) between Sweden and Denmark–Norway. Negotiations for the treaty began in February the same year.

Read More

 

14 August 1893 – France becomes the first country to introduce motor vehicle registration

Vehicle registration plate

Devices displaying a character string that uniquely identifies a particular vehicle.

"License plate" redirects here. Not to be confused with Bag tag or Builder's plate.

A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate (British, Indian and Australian English) or license plate (American English) or licence plate (Canadian English), is a metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. All countries require registration plates for road vehicles such as cars, trucks, and motorcycles. Whether they are required for other vehicles, such as bicycles, boats, or tractors, may vary by jurisdiction. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the vehicle or vehicle owner within the issuing region's vehicle register. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, while in others it is unique within a state or province. Whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. There are also electronic license plates.

Read More

 

15 August 1914 – The Panama Canal opens to traffic with the transit of the cargo ship SS Ancon.

Panama Canal

Shipping route across Central America

The Panama Canal (Spanish: Canal de Panamá) is an artificial 82-kilometre (51-mile) waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean, cutting across the Isthmus of Panama, and is a conduit for maritime trade. Locks at each end lift ships up to Gatun Lake, an artificial fresh water lake 26 meters (85 ft) above sea level, created by damming up the Chagres River and Lake Alajuela to reduce the amount of excavation work required for the canal. Locks then lower the ships at the other end. An average of 200,000,000 L (52,000,000 US gal) of fresh water is used in a single passing of a ship. The canal is threatened by low water levels during droughts.

The Panama Canal shortcut greatly reduces the time for ships to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, enabling them to avoid the lengthy, hazardous route around the southernmost tip of South America via the Drake Passage or Strait of Magellan. It is one of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken.

Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. France began work on the canal in 1881, but stopped because of lack of investors' confidence due to engineering problems and a high worker mortality rate. The US took over the project in 1904 and opened the canal in 1914. The US continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for its handover to Panama in 1977. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, the Panamanian government took control in 1999. It is now managed and operated by the Panamanian government-owned Panama Canal Authority.

The original locks are 33.5 meters (110 ft) wide and allow the passage of Panamax ships. A third, wider lane of locks was constructed between September 2007 and May 2016. The expanded waterway began commercial operation on June 26, 2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Neopanamax ships.

Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, when the canal opened, to 14,702 vessels in 2008, for a total of 333.7 million Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System (PC/UMS) tons. By 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal.^[1] In 2017, it took ships an average of 11.38 hours to pass between the canal's two outer locks. The American Society of Civil Engineers has ranked the Panama Canal one of the Seven Wonders of the Modern World.^[2]

1. ^ "Panama Canal Traffic—Years 1914–2010". Panama Canal Authority. Archived from the original on December 30, 2010. Retrieved January 25, 2011.
2. ^ "Seven Wonders". American Society of Civil Engineers. Archived from the original on August 2, 2010. Retrieved February 21, 2011.

Read More

 

16 August 1954 – The first issue of Sports Illustrated is published.

Sports Illustrated

American sports magazine

Sports Illustrated (SI) is an American sports magazine first published in August 1954. Founded by Stuart Scheftel, it was the first magazine with a circulation of over one million to win the National Magazine Award for General Excellence twice. It is also known for its annual swimsuit issue, which has been published since 1964, and has spawned other complementary media works and products.

Owned until 2018 by Time Inc., it was sold to Authentic Brands Group (ABG) following the sale of Time Inc. to Meredith Corporation. The Arena Group (formerly theMaven, Inc.) was subsequently awarded a 10-year license to operate the Sports Illustrated-branded editorial operations, while ABG licenses the brand for other non-editorial ventures and products. In January 2024, The Arena Group missed a quarterly licensing payment, leading ABG to terminate the company's license. Arena, in turn, laid off the publication's editorial staff.^[4]

In March 2024, ABG licensed the publishing rights to Minute Media in a 10-year deal, jointly announcing that the print and digital editions would be revived by rehiring some of the editorial staff.^[5]

1. ^ "10 Things You Didn't Know About SI's First Issue".
2. ^ Winslow, Donald R. (February 28, 2013). "New Sports Illustrated Photography Director: Brad Smith". NPPA. Archived from the original on June 20, 2017. Retrieved April 26, 2018.
3. ^ "eCirc for Consumer Magazines". Alliance for Audited Media. December 30, 2020. Retrieved March 16, 2021.
4. ^ Perez, A. J. (January 19, 2024). "Sports Illustrated's Publisher Lays Off Entire Staff. Future Unclear". Front Office Sports. Retrieved January 19, 2024.
5. ^ Mullin, Benjamin (March 18, 2024). "A New Chapter for Sports Illustrated, With Plans to Keep Print". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved March 18, 2024.

Read More

 

17 August 1918 – Bolshevik revolutionary leader Moisei Uritsky is assassinated.

Moisei Uritsky

Bolshevik revolutionary (1873–1918)

Moisei Solomonovich Uritsky (Ukrainian: Мойсей Соломонович Урицький; Russian: Моисей Соломонович Урицкий; 2 January [O.S. 14 January] 1873 – 30 August 1918) was a Bolshevik revolutionary leader in Russia. After the October Revolution, he was the chief of the Cheka secret police of the Petrograd Soviet. Uritsky was assassinated by Leonid Kannegisser, a military cadet, who was executed shortly afterwards.

Read More

 

18 August 1868 – French astronomer Pierre Janssen discovers helium.

Pierre Janssen

French astronomer (1824–1907)

For the Belgian footballer, see Pier Janssen.

Pierre Jules César Janssen (22 February 1824 – 23 December 1907), usually known as Jules Janssen, was a French astronomer who, along with English scientist Joseph Norman Lockyer, is credited with discovering the gaseous nature of the solar chromosphere, and with some justification the element helium.

Read More

 

19 August 1978 – In Iran, the Cinema Rex fire causes more than 400 deaths.

Cinema Rex fire

1978 terror attack in Abadan, Iran; catalyst for the 1979 revolution

This article is about the arson of the Cinema Rex in Iran. For the cinema destroyed by a V-2 rocket in World War II, see Cinema Rex bombing.

The Cinema Rex fire (Persian: آتش‌سوزی سینما رکس آبادان, lit. 'Rex Abadan cinema fire') happened on 19 August 1978 when the Cinema Rex in Abadan, Iran was set ablaze, killing between 377^[1] and 470 people.^[4] The event started when four individuals, who were militants motivated by Islamic extremism,^[2] doused the building with airplane fuel before setting it alight.^[5] The attack was responsible in part for triggering the Iranian Revolution of 1979, which saw the overthrow of the ruling dynasty under the Iranian monarch and a related outbreak of mass violence. It was the deadliest terrorist attack in history until the 1990 massacre of Sri Lankan Police officers.

The governing dynasty initially blamed "Islamic Marxists" for the fire^[6] and later reported that Islamic militants started the fire,^{[7][8][9][10]} while anti-Pahlavi protesters falsely^[2] blamed SAVAK, the Iranian secret police, for setting the fire.^[11][12] Even though Islamic extremists were responsible for the attack, the Islamic opposition benefited greatly from the disaster in terms of propaganda because of the general atmosphere of mistrust and wrath. Many Iranians accepted the disinformation, which fueled growing anti-Shah fervor.

According to Roy Mottahedeh, an American historian who authored The Mantle of the Prophet, "thousands of Iranians who had felt neutral and had until now thought that the struggle was only between the shah and supporters of religiously conservative mullahs felt that the government might put their own lives on the block to save itself. Suddenly, for hundreds of thousands, the movement was their own business."^[13]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Amanat, Abbas (2017). Iran: A Modern History. Yale University Press. p. 719. ISBN 978-0300112542.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference Tucker was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Kashani-Sabet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ "Iran: In with the madding crowd". The Economist. 3 November 2012. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Amuzegar1991 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "BBC فارسی - ايران - گاهشمار انقلاب" (in Persian). Retrieved 1 January 2018.
7. ^ Afkhami, R. Gholam (2009) The Life and Times of the Shah University of California Press, pages 465 & 459, ISBN 0-520-25328-0
8. ^ Ansari, M. Ali (2007) Modern Iran: the Pahlavis and after Pearson Education, page 259, ISBN 1-4058-4084-6
9. ^ Federal Research Division (2004) Iran A Country Study Kessinger Publishing, page 78, ISBN 1-4191-2670-9
10. ^ Bahl, Taru, Syed, M. H. (2003) Encyclopaedia of the Muslim World, Anmol Publications PVT. LTD., 2003, page 105, ISBN 81-261-1419-3
11. ^ Daniel, Elton L. and Mahdi, Ali Akbar (2006) Culture and Customs of Iran, Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut, page 106, ISBN 0-313-32053-5
12. ^ Hiro, Dilip (1985) Iran Under the Ayatollahs Routledge and K. Paul, London, page 74, ISBN 0-7100-9924-X
13. ^ Mottahedeh, Roy (2004). The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran, page 375.

Read More

 

20 August 1998 – The Supreme Court of Canada rules that Quebec cannot legally secede from Canada without the federal government's approval.

Reference Re Secession of Quebec

1998 Canadian Supreme Court case on the ability of Quebec to legally secede from Canada

Reference Re Secession of Quebec, [1998] 2 SCR 217 is a landmark judgment of the Supreme Court of Canada regarding the legality, under both Canadian and international law, of a unilateral secession of Quebec from Canada.

Both the Quebec government and the Canadian government stated they were pleased with the Supreme Court's opinion, pointing to different sections of the ruling.

1. ^ SCC Case Information - Docket 25506 Supreme Court of Canada

Read More

 

21 August 1883 – An F5 tornado strikes Rochester, Minnesota, leading to the creation of the Mayo Clinic.

1883 Rochester tornado

Windstorm in Minnesota, United States

On August 21, 1883, a devastating tornado affected southeastern portions—the Driftless Area—of the U.S. state of Minnesota. The massive tornado, retrospectively estimated to have been an F5 on the modern Fujita scale,^{[nb 2]} caused at least 37 deaths and over 200 injuries. The tornado was part of a tornado family, a series of tornadoes produced by a supercell, that included at least two significant tornadoes across Southeast Minnesota on August 21. A third significant tornado occurred two hours before the main event hit Rochester. The Rochester tornado indirectly led to the formation of Saint Mary's Hospital, now part of the Mayo Clinic. The tornado closely followed destructive tornadoes a month earlier in the same area: on July 21, two significant, deadly tornadoes hit the area, including an F4 tornado family that killed four people in Dodge and Olmsted Counties, especially near Dodge Center.^[6][7]

Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (July 1993). Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events. St. Johnsbury, Vermont: The Tornado Project of Environmental Films. p. 141. ISBN 1-879362-03-1.
2. ^ Grazulis, Thomas P. (2001). The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-8061-3538-0.
3. ^ Edwards, Roger (5 March 2015). "Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage". The Online Tornado FAQ (by Roger Edwards, SPC). Storm Prediction Center. Retrieved 25 February 2016.
4. ^ "Enhanced Fujita Scale (EF-Scale)". Environment and Climate Change Canada. 6 June 2013. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2016.
5. ^ "The International Tornado Intensity Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. 2016. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 25 February 2016.
6. ^ Grazulis 1993, p. 623
7. ^ "Rochester Tornado Aug 21 1883". La Crosse, WI Weather Forecast Office. La Crosse, Wisconsin: National Weather Service. Retrieved 4 January 2021.

Read More

 

22 August 1992 – FBI sniper Lon Horiuchi shoots and kills Vicki Weaver during an 11-day siege at her home at Ruby Ridge, Idaho.

Lon Horiuchi

Former U.S. Army officer and FBI Hostage Rescue Team (HRT) sniper

Lon Tomohisa Horiuchi (born June 9, 1954) is an American former Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Hostage Rescue Team (HRT) sniper and former United States Army officer who was involved in the 1992 Ruby Ridge standoff and 1993 Waco siege. In 1997, Horiuchi was charged with manslaughter for killing Vicki Weaver at Ruby Ridge; the charges were later dropped.

Read More

 

23 August 1991 – The World Wide Web is opened to the public.

World Wide Web

Linked hypertext system on the Internet

This article is about the global system of pages accessed via HTTP. For the worldwide computer network, see Internet. For the web browser, see WorldWideWeb.

"WWW" and "The Web" redirect here. For other uses, see WWW (disambiguation) and The Web (disambiguation).

The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is an information system that enables content sharing over the Internet through user-friendly ways meant to appeal to users beyond IT specialists and hobbyists.^[1] It allows documents and other web resources to be accessed over the Internet according to specific rules of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).^[2]

The Web was invented by English computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee while at CERN in 1989 and opened to the public in 1991. It was conceived as a "universal linked information system".^[3][4] Documents and other media content are made available to the network through web servers and can be accessed by programs such as web browsers. Servers and resources on the World Wide Web are identified and located through character strings called uniform resource locators (URLs).

The original and still very common document type is a web page formatted in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). This markup language supports plain text, images, embedded video and audio contents, and scripts (short programs) that implement complex user interaction. The HTML language also supports hyperlinks (embedded URLs) which provide immediate access to other web resources. Web navigation, or web surfing, is the common practice of following such hyperlinks across multiple websites. Web applications are web pages that function as application software. The information in the Web is transferred across the Internet using HTTP. Multiple web resources with a common theme and usually a common domain name make up a website. A single web server may provide multiple websites, while some websites, especially the most popular ones, may be provided by multiple servers. Website content is provided by a myriad of companies, organizations, government agencies, and individual users; and comprises an enormous amount of educational, entertainment, commercial, and government information.

The Web has become the world's dominant information systems platform.^[5][6][7][8] It is the primary tool that billions of people worldwide use to interact with the Internet.^[2]

1. ^ Wright, Edmund, ed. (2006). The Desk Encyclopedia of World History. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 312. ISBN 978-0-7394-7809-7.
2. ^ ^{a b} "What is the difference between the Web and the Internet?". W3C Help and FAQ. W3C. 2009. Archived from the original on 9 July 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2015.
3. ^ Berners-Lee, Tim. "Information Management: A Proposal". w3.org. The World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 1 April 2010. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
4. ^ "The World's First Web Site". HISTORY. 30 August 2018. Archived from the original on 19 August 2023. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
5. ^ Bleigh, Michael (16 May 2014). "The Once And Future Web Platform". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
6. ^ "World Wide Web Timeline". Pews Research Center. 11 March 2014. Archived from the original on 29 July 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
7. ^ Dewey, Caitlin (12 March 2014). "36 Ways The Web Has Changed Us". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 9 September 2015. Retrieved 1 August 2015.
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference internetlivestats was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Read More

 

24 August 1815 – The modern Constitution of the Netherlands is signed.

Constitution of the Netherlands

Basic law of the Netherlands

The Constitution of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Dutch: Grondwet voor het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden) is one of two fundamental documents governing the Kingdom of the Netherlands^[1] as well as the fundamental law of the European territory of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is generally seen as directly derived from the one issued in 1815, constituting a constitutional monarchy; it is the third oldest constitution still in use worldwide. A revision in 1848 instituted a system of parliamentary democracy. In 1983, the most recent major revision of the Constitution of the Netherlands was undertaken, almost fully rewriting the text and adding new civil rights.

The text is sober, devoid of legal or political doctrine and includes a bill of rights. It prohibits the judiciary from testing laws and treaties against the constitution, as this is considered a prerogative of the legislature. There is no constitutional court in the Netherlands.

The Kingdom of the Netherlands also includes Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten: there is an overarching instrument of the entire kingdom that has constitution characteristics: the Statute of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Sint Maarten is the only country in the kingdom of the Netherlands that has a constitutional court to govern the Sint Maarten legislature

1. ^ Article 5 of the Statute for the Kingdom of the Netherlands

Read More

 

25 August 1960 – The Games of the XVII Olympiad commence in Rome, Italy.

1960 Summer Olympics

Multi-sport event in Rome, Italy

The 1960 Summer Olympics (Italian: Giochi Olimpici estivi del 1960), officially known as the Games of the XVII Olympiad (Italian: Giochi della XVII Olimpiade) and commonly known as Rome 1960 (Italian: Roma 1960), were an international multi-sport event held from 25 August to 11 September 1960 in Rome, Italy. Rome had previously been awarded the administration of the 1908 Summer Olympics, but following the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 1906, the city had no choice but to decline and pass the honour to London. The Soviet Union won the most gold and overall medals at the 1960 Games.

The 1st Paralympic Games were held in Rome in conjunction with the 1960 Summer Olympics, marking the first time such events coincided.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Factsheet - Opening Ceremony of the Games of the Olympiad" (PDF) (Press release). International Olympic Committee. 9 October 2014. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 August 2016. Retrieved 22 December 2018.

Read More

 

26 August 2014 – The Jay Report into the Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal is published

Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal

Organised child sexual abuse scandal in Rotherham, England between the 1970s and 2013

The Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal consists of the organised child sexual abuse that occurred in the town of Rotherham, South Yorkshire, Northern England from the late 1980s until 2013^[9] and the failure of local authorities to act on reports of the abuse throughout most of that period.^[10] Researcher Angie Heal, who was hired by local officials and warned them about child exploitation occurring between 2002 and 2007, has since described it as the "biggest child protection scandal in UK history",^[11] with one report estimating that 1,400 girls were abused by "grooming gangs".^[9] Evidence of the abuse was first noted in the early 1990s, when care home managers investigated reports that children in their care were being picked up by taxi drivers.^[12] From at least 2001, multiple reports passed names of alleged perpetrators, several from one family, to the police and Rotherham Council. The first group conviction took place in 2010, when five British-Pakistani men were convicted of sexual offences against girls aged 12–16.^[13] From January 2011 Andrew Norfolk of The Times pressed the issue, reporting in 2012 that the abuse in the town was widespread and that the police and council had known about it for over ten years.^[a]

The Times articles, along with the 2012 trial of the Rochdale child sex abuse ring, prompted the House of Commons Home Affairs Committee to conduct hearings.^[16] Following this and further articles from Norfolk, Rotherham Council commissioned an independent inquiry led by Professor Alexis Jay. In August 2014 the Jay report concluded that an estimated 1,400 children^[17] had been sexually abused in Rotherham between 1997 and 2013, predominantly by British-Pakistani men.^[15]

BBC News (29 August 2014): "A care worker, who worked at children's homes from 2003–2007, told the BBC men would arrive almost 'every night' to collect girls, who escaped using a range of methods and were then usually driven off in taxis."^[18] The abuse included gang rape, forcing children to watch rape, dousing them with petrol and threatening to set them on fire, threatening to rape their mothers and younger sisters, as well as trafficking them to other towns.^[19] There were pregnancies (one at age 12), pregnancy terminations, miscarriages, babies raised by their mothers, in addition to babies removed, causing further trauma.^{[20][21][22][23]}

The failure to address the abuse was attributed to a combination of factors revolving around race, class, religion and gender—fear that the perpetrators' ethnicity would trigger allegations of racism; contemptuous and sexist attitudes toward the mostly working-class victims; lack of a child-centred focus; a desire to protect the town's reputation; and lack of training and resources.^[24][25][10]

Rotherham Council's chief executive, its director of children's services, as well as the Police and Crime Commissioner for South Yorkshire Police all resigned.^[26] The Independent Police Complaints Commission and the National Crime Agency both opened inquiries, the latter expected to last eight years.^[27][28] The government appointed Louise Casey to conduct an inspection of Rotherham Council.^[29] Published in January 2015, the Casey report concluded that the council had a bullying, sexist culture of covering up information and silencing whistleblowers; it was "not fit for purpose".^[30] In February 2015 the government replaced the council's elected officers with a team of five commissioners.^[31] As a result of new police inquiries, 19 men and two women were convicted in 2016 and 2017 of sexual offences in the town dating back to the late 1980s; one of the ringleaders was jailed for 35 years.^[32]

1. ^ "Rotherham abuse scandal whistleblower: True number of victims likely to be 2,000". The Star. 29 March 2023. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
2. ^ Janice Turner (19 March 2016). "The Rotherham Whistleblower", The Times magazine.
3. ^ Home Affairs Committee (c) 2014.
4. ^ Jay 2014.
5. ^ Casey 2015.
6. ^ Jay 2014, p. 31.
7. ^ "Andrew Norfolk named journalist of the year as Times and Sunday Times claim seven British Journalism Awards", Press Gazette, 2 December 2014.

   Martinson, Jane (28 September 2014). "Rotherham child sex scandal: Andrew Norfolk on how he broke the story", The Guardian.

8. ^ "Rotherham whistleblower Jayne Senior appointed MBE", BBC News, 10 June 2016.
9. ^ ^{a b} "Rotherham abuse scandal: How we got here". BBC News. 22 June 2022. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
10. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Pidd13July2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Gladman & Heal 2017, 28.
12. ^ Senior 2016, 56.
13. ^ Jay 2014, 23.
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference NorfolkJan2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
15. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Norfolk24Sept2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ Home Affairs Committee (a) 2013, 3–4.
17. ^ "Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Exploitation in Rotherham (1997–2013)". Retrieved 15 April 2024.
18. ^ "Rotherham child abusers 'brazen', says care home worker", BBC News, 29 August 2014.
    Keith Perry (29 August 2014). "Rotherham: 'Brazen' sex abusers sent taxis to collect girls from children's home", The Daily Telegraph.

    Olivia Goldhill and Ju Zhang (7 June 2015). "A Rotherham abuse survivor speaks out", The Sunday Telegraph.

19. ^ Jay 2014, 1, 35–37.
20. ^ Jay 2014, 43.
21. ^ Senior 2016, 148–149.
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference Telegraph2Feb2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
23. ^ Cite error: The named reference Dearden30Aug2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
24. ^ Jay 2014, 69, 101.
25. ^ Casey 2015, 9, 32–36.
26. ^ "PCC Shaun Wright resigns over Rotherham child abuse scandal". BBC News. 16 September 2014.
27. ^ Cite error: The named reference NCA18Dec2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
28. ^ Cite error: The named reference Norfolk7June2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
29. ^ Casey 2015, 6.
30. ^ Casey 2015, 9, 11, 30.
31. ^ Cite error: The named reference bbc31130750 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
32. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC26Feb2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

Read More

 

26 August 2014 – The Jay Report into the Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal is published

Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal

Organised child sexual abuse scandal in Rotherham, England between the 1970s and 2013

The Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal consists of the organised child sexual abuse that occurred in the town of Rotherham, South Yorkshire, Northern England from the late 1980s until 2013^[9] and the failure of local authorities to act on reports of the abuse throughout most of that period.^[10] Researcher Angie Heal, who was hired by local officials and warned them about child exploitation occurring between 2002 and 2007, has since described it as the "biggest child protection scandal in UK history",^[11] with one report estimating that 1,400 girls were abused by "grooming gangs".^[9] Evidence of the abuse was first noted in the early 1990s, when care home managers investigated reports that children in their care were being picked up by taxi drivers.^[12] From at least 2001, multiple reports passed names of alleged perpetrators, several from one family, to the police and Rotherham Council. The first group conviction took place in 2010, when five British-Pakistani men were convicted of sexual offences against girls aged 12–16.^[13] From January 2011 Andrew Norfolk of The Times pressed the issue, reporting in 2012 that the abuse in the town was widespread and that the police and council had known about it for over ten years.^[a]

The Times articles, along with the 2012 trial of the Rochdale child sex abuse ring, prompted the House of Commons Home Affairs Committee to conduct hearings.^[16] Following this and further articles from Norfolk, Rotherham Council commissioned an independent inquiry led by Professor Alexis Jay. In August 2014 the Jay report concluded that an estimated 1,400 children^[17] had been sexually abused in Rotherham between 1997 and 2013, predominantly by British-Pakistani men.^[15]

BBC News (29 August 2014): "A care worker, who worked at children's homes from 2003–2007, told the BBC men would arrive almost 'every night' to collect girls, who escaped using a range of methods and were then usually driven off in taxis."^[18] The abuse included gang rape, forcing children to watch rape, dousing them with petrol and threatening to set them on fire, threatening to rape their mothers and younger sisters, as well as trafficking them to other towns.^[19] There were pregnancies (one at age 12), pregnancy terminations, miscarriages, babies raised by their mothers, in addition to babies removed, causing further trauma.^{[20][21][22][23]}

The failure to address the abuse was attributed to a combination of factors revolving around race, class, religion and gender—fear that the perpetrators' ethnicity would trigger allegations of racism; contemptuous and sexist attitudes toward the mostly working-class victims; lack of a child-centred focus; a desire to protect the town's reputation; and lack of training and resources.^[24][25][10]

Rotherham Council's chief executive, its director of children's services, as well as the Police and Crime Commissioner for South Yorkshire Police all resigned.^[26] The Independent Police Complaints Commission and the National Crime Agency both opened inquiries, the latter expected to last eight years.^[27][28] The government appointed Louise Casey to conduct an inspection of Rotherham Council.^[29] Published in January 2015, the Casey report concluded that the council had a bullying, sexist culture of covering up information and silencing whistleblowers; it was "not fit for purpose".^[30] In February 2015 the government replaced the council's elected officers with a team of five commissioners.^[31] As a result of new police inquiries, 19 men and two women were convicted in 2016 and 2017 of sexual offences in the town dating back to the late 1980s; one of the ringleaders was jailed for 35 years.^[32]

1. ^ "Rotherham abuse scandal whistleblower: True number of victims likely to be 2,000". The Star. 29 March 2023. Retrieved 20 April 2023.
2. ^ Janice Turner (19 March 2016). "The Rotherham Whistleblower", The Times magazine.
3. ^ Home Affairs Committee (c) 2014.
4. ^ Jay 2014.
5. ^ Casey 2015.
6. ^ Jay 2014, p. 31.
7. ^ "Andrew Norfolk named journalist of the year as Times and Sunday Times claim seven British Journalism Awards", Press Gazette, 2 December 2014.

   Martinson, Jane (28 September 2014). "Rotherham child sex scandal: Andrew Norfolk on how he broke the story", The Guardian.

8. ^ "Rotherham whistleblower Jayne Senior appointed MBE", BBC News, 10 June 2016.
9. ^ ^{a b} "Rotherham abuse scandal: How we got here". BBC News. 22 June 2022. Retrieved 26 January 2024.
10. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Pidd13July2015 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Gladman & Heal 2017, 28.
12. ^ Senior 2016, 56.
13. ^ Jay 2014, 23.
14. ^ Cite error: The named reference NorfolkJan2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
15. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Norfolk24Sept2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
16. ^ Home Affairs Committee (a) 2013, 3–4.
17. ^ "Independent Inquiry into Child Sexual Exploitation in Rotherham (1997–2013)". Retrieved 15 April 2024.
18. ^ "Rotherham child abusers 'brazen', says care home worker", BBC News, 29 August 2014.
    Keith Perry (29 August 2014). "Rotherham: 'Brazen' sex abusers sent taxis to collect girls from children's home", The Daily Telegraph.

    Olivia Goldhill and Ju Zhang (7 June 2015). "A Rotherham abuse survivor speaks out", The Sunday Telegraph.

19. ^ Jay 2014, 1, 35–37.
20. ^ Jay 2014, 43.
21. ^ Senior 2016, 148–149.
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference Telegraph2Feb2017 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
23. ^ Cite error: The named reference Dearden30Aug2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
24. ^ Jay 2014, 69, 101.
25. ^ Casey 2015, 9, 32–36.
26. ^ "PCC Shaun Wright resigns over Rotherham child abuse scandal". BBC News. 16 September 2014.
27. ^ Cite error: The named reference NCA18Dec2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
28. ^ Cite error: The named reference Norfolk7June2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
29. ^ Casey 2015, 6.
30. ^ Casey 2015, 9, 11, 30.
31. ^ Cite error: The named reference bbc31130750 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
32. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC26Feb2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

Read More

 

27 August 2003 – Mars makes its closest approach to Earth in nearly 60,000 years, passing 34,646,418 miles (55,758,005 km) distant.

Mars

Fourth planet from the Sun

This article is about the planet. For the deity, see Mars (mythology). For other uses, see Mars (disambiguation).

"Fourth planet" redirects here. For other systems of numbering planets, see Planet § History and etymology.

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. The surface of Mars is orange-red because it is covered in iron(III) oxide dust, giving it the nickname "the Red Planet".^[21][22] Mars is among the brightest objects in Earth's sky and its high-contrast albedo features have made it a common subject for telescope viewing. It is classified as a terrestrial planet and is the second smallest of the Solar System's planets with a diameter of 6,779 km (4,212 mi). In terms of orbital motion, a Martian solar day (sol) is equal to 24.5 hours and a Martian solar year is equal to 1.88 Earth years (687 Earth days). Mars has two natural satellites that are small and irregular in shape: Phobos and Deimos.

The relatively flat plains in northern parts of Mars strongly contrast with the cratered terrain in southern highlands – this terrain observation is known as the Martian dichotomy. Mars hosts many enormous extinct volcanos (such as Olympus Mons, 21.9 km or 13.6 mi tall) and one of the largest canyons in the Solar System (Valles Marineris, 4,000 km or 2,500 mi long). Geologically, the planet is fairly active with marsquakes trembling underneath the ground, dust devils sweeping across the landscape, and cirrus clouds. Carbon dioxide is substantially present in Mars's polar ice caps and thin atmosphere. During a year, there are large surface temperature swings on the surface between −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F) to 5.7 °C (42.3 °F)^[c] similar to Earth's seasons, as both planets have significant axial tilt.

Mars was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. During the Noachian period (4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago), Mars's surface was marked by meteor impacts, valley formation, erosion, and the possible presence of water oceans. The Hesperian period (3.5 to 3.3–2.9 billion years ago) was dominated by widespread volcanic activity and flooding that carved immense outflow channels. The Amazonian period, which continues to the present, was marked by the wind as a dominant influence on geological processes. Due to Mars's geological history, the possibility of past or present life on Mars remains of great scientific interest.

Since the late 20th century, Mars has been explored by uncrewed spacecraft and rovers, with the first flyby by the Mariner 4 probe in 1965, the first Mars orbiter by the Mars 2 probe in 1971, and the first landing by the Viking 1 probe in 1976. As of 2023, there are at least 11 active probes orbiting Mars or at the Martian surface. Mars is an attractive target for future human exploration missions, though in the 2020s no such mission is planned.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference VSOP87 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l} Cite error: The named reference NasaFactSheet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b c} Allen CW, Cox AN (2000). Allen's Astrophysical Quantities. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 294. ISBN 978-0-387-95189-8. Archived from the original on 1 March 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Souami_Souchay_2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ ^{a b} "HORIZONS Batch call for 2022 perihelion" (Perihelion occurs when rdot flips from negative to positive). Solar System Dynamics Group, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Archived from the original on 8 September 2021. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
6. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Cite error: The named reference Seidelmann2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Grego P (6 June 2012). Mars and How to Observe It. Springer Science+Business Media. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4614-2302-7 – via Internet Archive.
8. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference lodders1998 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference konopliv2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Hirt C, Claessens SJ, Kuhn M, et al. (July 2012). "Kilometer-resolution gravity field of Mars: MGM2011" (PDF). Planetary and Space Science. 67 (1): 147–154. Bibcode:2012P&SS...67..147H. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2012.02.006. hdl:20.500.11937/32270. Archived from the original on 1 March 2024. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
11. ^ Jackson AP, Gabriel TS, Asphaug EI (1 March 2018). "Constraints on the pre-impact orbits of Solar system giant impactors". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 474 (3): 2924–2936. arXiv:1711.05285. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2901. ISSN 0035-8711. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
12. ^ Allison M, Schmunk R. "Mars24 Sunclock — Time on Mars". NASA GISS. Archived from the original on 24 January 2017. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference MallamaMars was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ "Atmospheres and Planetary Temperatures". American Chemical Society. 18 July 2013. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
15. ^ ^{a b c d} "Mars Exploration Rover Mission: Spotlight". Marsrover.nasa.gov. 12 June 2007. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2012. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
16. ^ ^{a b} Sharp T, Gordon J, Tillman N (31 January 2022). "What is the Temperature of Mars?". Space.com. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2022.
17. ^ ^{a b} Hassler DM, Zeitlin C, Wimmer-Schweingruber RF, et al. (24 January 2014). "Mars' Surface Radiation Environment Measured with the Mars Science Laboratory's Curiosity Rover". Science. 343 (6169). Tables 1 and 2. Bibcode:2014Sci...343D.386H. doi:10.1126/science.1244797. hdl:1874/309142. PMID 24324275. S2CID 33661472.
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mallama_and_Hilton was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ "Encyclopedia - the brightest bodies". IMCCE. Archived from the original on 24 July 2023. Retrieved 29 May 2023.
20. ^ Cite error: The named reference barlow08 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
21. ^ Rees MJ, ed. (October 2012). Universe: The Definitive Visual Guide. New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 160–161. ISBN 978-0-7566-9841-6.
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference nasa_hematite was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Read More

 

27 August 2003 – Mars makes its closest approach to Earth in nearly 60,000 years, passing 34,646,418 miles (55,758,005 km) distant.

Mars

Fourth planet from the Sun

This article is about the planet. For the deity, see Mars (mythology). For other uses, see Mars (disambiguation).

"Fourth planet" redirects here. For other systems of numbering planets, see Planet § History and etymology.

Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun. The surface of Mars is orange-red because it is covered in iron(III) oxide dust, giving it the nickname "the Red Planet".^[21][22] Mars is among the brightest objects in Earth's sky and its high-contrast albedo features have made it a common subject for telescope viewing. It is classified as a terrestrial planet and is the second smallest of the Solar System's planets with a diameter of 6,779 km (4,212 mi). In terms of orbital motion, a Martian solar day (sol) is equal to 24.5 hours and a Martian solar year is equal to 1.88 Earth years (687 Earth days). Mars has two natural satellites that are small and irregular in shape: Phobos and Deimos.

The relatively flat plains in northern parts of Mars strongly contrast with the cratered terrain in southern highlands – this terrain observation is known as the Martian dichotomy. Mars hosts many enormous extinct volcanos (such as Olympus Mons, 21.9 km or 13.6 mi tall) and one of the largest canyons in the Solar System (Valles Marineris, 4,000 km or 2,500 mi long). Geologically, the planet is fairly active with marsquakes trembling underneath the ground, dust devils sweeping across the landscape, and cirrus clouds. Carbon dioxide is substantially present in Mars's polar ice caps and thin atmosphere. During a year, there are large surface temperature swings on the surface between −78.5 °C (−109.3 °F) to 5.7 °C (42.3 °F)^[c] similar to Earth's seasons, as both planets have significant axial tilt.

Mars was formed approximately 4.5 billion years ago. During the Noachian period (4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago), Mars's surface was marked by meteor impacts, valley formation, erosion, and the possible presence of water oceans. The Hesperian period (3.5 to 3.3–2.9 billion years ago) was dominated by widespread volcanic activity and flooding that carved immense outflow channels. The Amazonian period, which continues to the present, was marked by the wind as a dominant influence on geological processes. Due to Mars's geological history, the possibility of past or present life on Mars remains of great scientific interest.

Since the late 20th century, Mars has been explored by uncrewed spacecraft and rovers, with the first flyby by the Mariner 4 probe in 1965, the first Mars orbiter by the Mars 2 probe in 1971, and the first landing by the Viking 1 probe in 1976. As of 2023, there are at least 11 active probes orbiting Mars or at the Martian surface. Mars is an attractive target for future human exploration missions, though in the 2020s no such mission is planned.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference VSOP87 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l} Cite error: The named reference NasaFactSheet was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b c} Allen CW, Cox AN (2000). Allen's Astrophysical Quantities. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 294. ISBN 978-0-387-95189-8. Archived from the original on 1 March 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2022.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Souami_Souchay_2012 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ ^{a b} "HORIZONS Batch call for 2022 perihelion" (Perihelion occurs when rdot flips from negative to positive). Solar System Dynamics Group, Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Archived from the original on 8 September 2021. Retrieved 7 September 2021.
6. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Cite error: The named reference Seidelmann2007 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Grego P (6 June 2012). Mars and How to Observe It. Springer Science+Business Media. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4614-2302-7 – via Internet Archive.
8. ^ ^{a b c} Cite error: The named reference lodders1998 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference konopliv2011 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Hirt C, Claessens SJ, Kuhn M, et al. (July 2012). "Kilometer-resolution gravity field of Mars: MGM2011" (PDF). Planetary and Space Science. 67 (1): 147–154. Bibcode:2012P&SS...67..147H. doi:10.1016/j.pss.2012.02.006. hdl:20.500.11937/32270. Archived from the original on 1 March 2024. Retrieved 25 August 2019.
11. ^ Jackson AP, Gabriel TS, Asphaug EI (1 March 2018). "Constraints on the pre-impact orbits of Solar system giant impactors". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 474 (3): 2924–2936. arXiv:1711.05285. doi:10.1093/mnras/stx2901. ISSN 0035-8711. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 23 April 2022.
12. ^ Allison M, Schmunk R. "Mars24 Sunclock — Time on Mars". NASA GISS. Archived from the original on 24 January 2017. Retrieved 19 August 2021.
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference MallamaMars was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ "Atmospheres and Planetary Temperatures". American Chemical Society. 18 July 2013. Archived from the original on 27 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
15. ^ ^{a b c d} "Mars Exploration Rover Mission: Spotlight". Marsrover.nasa.gov. 12 June 2007. Archived from the original on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 14 August 2012. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
16. ^ ^{a b} Sharp T, Gordon J, Tillman N (31 January 2022). "What is the Temperature of Mars?". Space.com. Archived from the original on 22 April 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2022.
17. ^ ^{a b} Hassler DM, Zeitlin C, Wimmer-Schweingruber RF, et al. (24 January 2014). "Mars' Surface Radiation Environment Measured with the Mars Science Laboratory's Curiosity Rover". Science. 343 (6169). Tables 1 and 2. Bibcode:2014Sci...343D.386H. doi:10.1126/science.1244797. hdl:1874/309142. PMID 24324275. S2CID 33661472.
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Mallama_and_Hilton was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ "Encyclopedia - the brightest bodies". IMCCE. Archived from the original on 24 July 2023. Retrieved 29 May 2023.
20. ^ Cite error: The named reference barlow08 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
21. ^ Rees MJ, ed. (October 2012). Universe: The Definitive Visual Guide. New York: Dorling Kindersley. pp. 160–161. ISBN 978-0-7566-9841-6.
22. ^ Cite error: The named reference nasa_hematite was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Read More

 

23 August 1898 – The Southern Cross Expedition, the first British venture of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, departs from London.

Southern Cross Expedition

1898–1900 research expedition to Antarctica

The Southern Cross Expedition, otherwise known as the British Antarctic Expedition, 1898–1900, was the first British venture of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration, and the forerunner of the more celebrated journeys of Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton. The brainchild of the Anglo-Norwegian explorer Carsten Borchgrevink, it was the first expedition to over-winter on the Antarctic mainland, the first to visit the Great Ice Barrier—later known as the Ross Ice Shelf—since Sir James Clark Ross's groundbreaking expedition of 1839 to 1843, and the first to effect a landing on the Barrier's surface. It also pioneered the use of dogs and sledges in Antarctic travel.

The expedition was privately financed by the British magazine publisher Sir George Newnes. Borchgrevink's party sailed in the Southern Cross, and spent the southern winter of 1899 at Cape Adare, the northwest extremity of the Ross Sea coastline. Here they carried out an extensive programme of scientific observations, although opportunities for inland exploration were restricted by the mountainous and glaciated terrain surrounding the base. In January 1900, the party left Cape Adare in Southern Cross to explore the Ross Sea, following the route taken by Ross 60 years earlier. They reached the Great Ice Barrier, where a team of three made the first sledge journey on the Barrier surface, during which a new Farthest South record latitude was established at 78° 50′S.

On its return to Britain the expedition was coolly received by London's geographical establishment exemplified by the Royal Geographical Society, which resented the pre-emption of the pioneering Antarctic role they envisaged for the Discovery Expedition. There were also questions about Borchgrevink's leadership qualities, and criticism of the limited extent of scientific results. Thus, despite the number of significant "firsts", Borchgrevink was never accorded the heroic status of Scott or Shackleton, and his expedition was soon forgotten in the dramas which surrounded these and other Heroic Age explorers. However, Roald Amundsen, conqueror of the South Pole in 1911, acknowledged that Borchgrevink's expedition had removed the greatest obstacles to Antarctic travel, and had opened the way for all the expeditions that followed.

Read More

 

29 August 1912 – A typhoon strikes China, killing at least 50,000 people.

1912 China typhoon

Tropical cyclone affecting China

The 1912 China Typhoon devastated the coast of China on August 29, 1912. It formed in the Philippine Sea, before making its way to the China. The typhoon brought strong winds and substantial amounts of rain. Heavy flooding along rivers were reported in Zhejiang, resulting in 50,000–220,000 fatalities. It is one of the deadliest recorded typhoons in history.

Read More

 

30 August 1963 – The Moscow–Washington hotline between the leaders of the U.S. and the Soviet Union goes into operation.

Moscow–Washington hotline

Direct communication system between Russia and the United States

The Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, U.S. (left) and the Kremlin in Moscow, Russia (right), the two facilities linked by the hotline.

The Moscow–Washington hotline (formally known in the United States as the Washington–Moscow Direct Communications Link;^[1] Russian: Горячая линия Вашингтон – Москва, tr. Goryachaya liniya Vashington–Moskva) is a system that allows direct communication between the leaders of the United States and the Russian Federation (formerly the Soviet Union). This hotline was established in 1963 and links the Pentagon with the Kremlin (historically, with Soviet Communist Party leadership across the square from the Kremlin itself).^[1][2] Although in popular culture it is known as the "red telephone", the hotline was never a telephone line, and no red phones were used. The first implementation used Teletype equipment, and shifted to fax machines in 1986.^[3] Since 2008, the Moscow–Washington hotline has been a secure computer link over which messages are exchanged by a secure form of email.^[4]

1. ^ ^{a b} Stone, Webster (September 18, 1988). "Moscow's Still Holding". New York Times. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015. Retrieved October 28, 2014.
2. ^ Clavin, Tom (19 Jun 2013). "There Never Was Such a Thing as a Red Phone in the White House". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2013-07-01.
3. ^ Graham, Thomas; La Vera, Damien (2002). "The 'Hot Line' Agreements". Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era. University of Washington Press. pp. 20–28. ISBN 978-0295801414.
4. ^ Craig, Bell; Richardson, Paul E. (September–October 2009). "The Hot Line {Is a Hollywood Myth}". Russian Life. Vol. 52, no. 5. Archived from the original on 2015-06-30.^{[dead link]}

Read More

 

31 August 1920 – Polish–Soviet War: A decisive Polish victory in the Battle of Komarów.

Battle of Komarów

1920 battle of the Polish-Soviet War

This article is about the 1920 battle. For the 1914 battle, see Battle of Komarów (1914).

The Battle of Komarów, or the Zamość Ring, was one of the most important battles of the Polish-Soviet War. It took place between 20 August and 2 September 1920, near the village of Komarowo (now Komarów) near Zamość. It was the last large battle in Europe in which cavalry was used as such and not as mounted infantry.^{[1]: 226–232}

The battle ended in a disaster for the Soviet 1st Cavalry Army, which sustained heavy casualties and barely avoided being surrounded and destroyed. After the battle, the morale of the 1st Cavalry Army collapsed, and it no longer remained an effective fighting force.

1. ^ Davies, N., 1972, White Eagle, Red Star, London: Macdonald & Co, ISBN 9780712606943

Read More

 

1 September 1939 – J. Robert Oppenheimer and his student Hartland Snyder publish the Oppenheimer–Snyder model, proving for the first time in contemporary physics how black holes could develop.

J. Robert Oppenheimer

American theoretical physicist (1904–1967)

"Oppenheimer" redirects here. For other uses, see Oppenheimer (disambiguation).

J. Robert Oppenheimer (born Julius Robert Oppenheimer; /ˈɒpənhaɪmər/ OP-ən-hy-mər; April 22, 1904 – February 18, 1967) was an American theoretical physicist. He was director of the Manhattan Project's Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II and is often called the "father of the atomic bomb".

Born in New York City, Oppenheimer earned a bachelor of arts degree in chemistry from Harvard University in 1925 and a doctorate in physics from the University of Göttingen in Germany in 1927, where he studied under Max Born. After research at other institutions, he joined the physics department at the University of California, Berkeley, where he became a full professor in 1936. He made significant contributions to theoretical physics, including achievements in quantum mechanics and nuclear physics such as the Born–Oppenheimer approximation for molecular wave functions, work on the theory of electrons and positrons, the Oppenheimer–Phillips process in nuclear fusion, and early work on quantum tunneling. With his students, he also made contributions to the theory of neutron stars and black holes, quantum field theory, and the interactions of cosmic rays.

In 1942, Oppenheimer was recruited to work on the Manhattan Project, and in 1943 he was appointed director of the project's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, tasked with developing the first nuclear weapons. His leadership and scientific expertise were instrumental in the project's success. On July 16, 1945, he was present at the first test of the atomic bomb, Trinity. In August 1945, the weapons were used against Japan in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the only use of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict.

In 1947, Oppenheimer became the director of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, and chaired the influential General Advisory Committee of the newly created U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. He lobbied for international control of nuclear power to avert nuclear proliferation and a nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union. He opposed the development of the hydrogen bomb during a 1949–1950 governmental debate on the question and subsequently took positions on defense-related issues that provoked the ire of some U.S. government and military factions. During the second Red Scare, Oppenheimer's stances, together with his past associations with the Communist Party USA, led to the revocation of his security clearance, following a 1954 security hearing. This effectively ended his access to the government's atomic secrets and his career as a nuclear physicist. Although stripped of his direct political influence, Oppenheimer nevertheless continued to lecture, write, and work in physics. In 1963, as a gesture of political rehabilitation, he was given the Enrico Fermi Award. He died four years later, of throat cancer. In 2022, the federal government vacated the 1954 revocation of his security clearance.

Read More

 

2 September 1998 – The UN's International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda finds Jean-Paul Akayesu, the former mayor of a small town in Rwanda, guilty of nine counts of genocide.

International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda

1994 court of the United Nations Security Council

Preview warning: Page using Template:Infobox court with unknown parameter "country"

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda^[a] (ICTR; French: Tribunal pénal international pour le Rwanda; Kinyarwanda: Urukiko Mpanabyaha Mpuzamahanga Rwashyiriweho u Rwanda) was an international court established in November 1994 by the United Nations Security Council in Resolution 955 in order to adjudicate people charged for the Rwandan genocide and other serious violations of international law in Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994.^[1] The court eventually convicted 61 individuals and acquitted 14.^[2]

In 1995, it became located in Arusha, Tanzania, under Resolution 977.^[3] From 2006, Arusha also became the location of the African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights. In 1998 the operation of the tribunal was expanded in Resolution 1165.^[4] Through several resolutions, the Security Council called on the tribunal to complete its investigations by end of 2004, complete all trial activities by end of 2008, and complete all work in 2012.^[5] The tribunal had jurisdiction over genocide, crimes against humanity, and violations of Common Article Three and Additional Protocol II of the Geneva Conventions (which deals with internal conflicts).

The first trial, of Jean-Paul Akayesu, began in 1997. Jean Kambanda, interim Prime Minister, pleaded guilty. According to the ICTR's Completion Strategy, in accordance with Security Council Resolution 1503, all first-instance cases were to have completed trial by the end of 2008 (this date was later extended to the end of 2009^[6]) and all work was to be completed by 2010. As of 2009, the tribunal had finished 50 trials and convicted 29 accused persons, and another 11 trials were in progress and 14 individuals were awaiting trial in detention; but the prosecutor intended to transfer 5 to national jurisdiction for trial. 13 others were still at large, some suspected to be dead.^[7] The United Nations Security Council called upon the tribunal to finish its work by 31 December 2014 to prepare for its closure and transfer of its responsibilities to the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals (IRMCT or Mechanism) which had begun functioning for the ICTR branch on 1 July 2012.^[8] The Tribunal was officially closed on 31 December 2016.

The tribunal's failure to prosecute war crimes committed by the Rwandan Patriotic Front or try RPF leader Paul Kagame was widely criticized, to the point of being characterized as "victor's justice".^{[9][10][11][12][13][14][15]}

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ United Nations Security Council Resolution 955. S/RES/955(1994) 8 November 1994.
2. ^ International Justice Resource Center (7 February 2010). "ICTR". Retrieved 2 May 2023.
3. ^ United Nations Security Council Resolution 977. S/RES/977(1995) 22 February 1995.
4. ^ United Nations Security Council Resolution 1165. S/RES/1165(1998) 30 April 1998.
5. ^ United Nations Security Council Resolution 1824. S/RES/1824(2008) page 1. 18 July 2008.
6. ^ "Rwanda genocide court says mandate extended to 2009". Reuters. July 29, 2008 – via uk.reuters.com.
7. ^ "ICTR - Status of Cases". Archived from the original on 2009-07-21. Retrieved 2010-04-13.
8. ^ "ICTR Expected to close down in 2015 | United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda". unictr.irmct.org.
9. ^ Peskin, Victor (2005). "Beyond Victor's Justice? The Challenge of Prosecuting the Winners at the International Criminal Tribunals for the Former Yugoslavia and Rwanda". Journal of Human Rights. 4 (2): 213–231. doi:10.1080/14754830590952152. S2CID 143431169.
10. ^ Keith, Kirsten MF (2009). "Justice at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Are Criticisms Just". Law in Context: A Socio-Legal Journal. 27: 78.
11. ^ Haskell, Leslie; Waldorf, Lars (2011). "The Impunity Gap of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Causes and Consequences". Hastings International and Comparative Law Review. 34 (1): 49. ISSN 0149-9246.
12. ^ Humphrey, Michael (2003). "International intervention, justice and national reconciliation: the role of the ICTY and ICTR in Bosnia and Rwanda". Journal of Human Rights. 2 (4): 495–505. doi:10.1080/1475483032000137084.
13. ^ Schabas, William A. (2010). "Victor's Justice: Selecting Situations at the International Criminal Court". John Marshall Law Review. 43: 535.
14. ^ Reydams, Luc (1 January 2013). "Let's Be Friends: The United States, Post-Genocide Rwanda, and Victor's Justice in Arusha" (PDF). doi:10.2139/ssrn.2197823. SSRN 2197823. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
15. ^ Morrill, Hanna (2011). "Challenging Impunity - The Failure of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda to Prosecute Paul Kagame". Brooklyn Journal of International Law. 37: 683.

Read More

 

3 September 1651 – The Battle of Worcester is the last significant action in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.

Battle of Worcester

1651 final battle of the English Civil War

The Battle of Worcester took place on 3 September 1651 in and around the city of Worcester, England and was the last major battle of the 1639 to 1653 Wars of the Three Kingdoms. A Parliamentarian army of around 28,000 under Oliver Cromwell defeated a largely Scottish Royalist force of 16,000 led by Charles II of England.^[2][3]

The Royalists took up defensive positions in and around the city of Worcester. The area of the battle was bisected by the River Severn, with the River Teme forming an additional obstacle to the south-west of Worcester. Cromwell divided his army into two main sections, divided by the Severn, in order to attack from both the east and south-west. There was fierce fighting at river crossing points and two dangerous sorties by the Royalists against the eastern Parliamentary force were beaten back. Following the storming of a major redoubt to the east of the city, the Parliamentarians entered Worcester and organised Royalist resistance collapsed. Charles II was able to escape capture.

1. ^ British Museum staff.
2. ^ ^{a b} Cone 2003.
3. ^ Fraser 2012, p. 24.

Read More

 

4 September 1948 – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands abdicates for health reasons.

Wilhelmina of the Netherlands

Queen of the Netherlands from 1890 to 1948

Not to be confused with Wilhelmine of Prussia, Queen of the Netherlands.

Wilhelmina (Dutch pronunciation: [ʋɪlɦɛlˈminaː] ^ⓘ; Wilhelmina Helena Pauline Maria; 31 August 1880 – 28 November 1962) was Queen of the Netherlands from 1890 until her abdication in 1948. She reigned for nearly 58 years, making her the longest-reigning monarch in Dutch history, as well as the longest-reigning female monarch outside the United Kingdom. Her reign saw World War I, the Dutch economic crisis of 1933 and World War II.

The only surviving child of King William III of the Netherlands and Emma of Waldeck and Pyrmont, Wilhelmina ascended the throne at the age of 10 after her father's death in 1890, under her mother's regency. After taking charge of government, Wilhelmina became generally popular for maintaining Dutch neutrality during the First World War and solving many of her country's industrial problems. By that time, her business ventures had made her the world's first female billionaire in dollars.^[1]

Following the German invasion of the Netherlands in 1940, Wilhelmina fled to Britain and took charge of the Dutch government-in-exile. She frequently spoke to the nation over radio and came to be regarded as a symbol of the resistance^[1] although she was criticised for failing to acknowledge some of the atrocities such as the Bombing of Nijmegen. By 1948, she had returned to the liberated Netherlands and was the only survivor of the 16 monarchs who were sitting on their thrones at the time of her inauguration.^[2] Increasingly beset by poor health, Wilhelmina abdicated in favour of her daughter Juliana in September 1948 and retired to Het Loo Palace, where she died in 1962.

She remains reasonably popular in the Netherlands, even among the Dutch Republican movement.^[3] This is due to her being seen as a symbol of Dutch Resistance during World War II.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Wilhelmina of Netherlands Dies" (UPI), The New York Times, 28 November 1962. pp. A1–A39.
2. ^ "Queen Wilhelmina". Life. Vol. 25, no. 7. 16 August 1948. p. 83. ISSN 0024-3019.
3. ^ Fitzwilliams, Richard (30 April 2013). "What Dutch 'Bicycling Royals' Can Teach World's Royals". Cable News Network (CNN).

Read More

 

5 September 1666 – Great Fire of London ends: Ten thousand buildings, including Old St Paul's Cathedral, are destroyed, but only six people are known to have died.

Great Fire of London

Major City of London fire in 1666

This article is about the 1666 fire of London. For other "Great Fires", see List of historic fires. For other notable fires in London, see Early fires of London and Second Great Fire of London.

The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through central London from Sunday 2 September to Thursday 6 September 1666,^[1] gutting the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall, while also extending past the wall to the west. The death toll is generally thought to have been relatively small,^[2][3] although some historians have challenged this belief.^[4]

The fire started in a bakery in Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday 2 September, and spread rapidly. The use of the major firefighting technique of the time, the creation of firebreaks by means of removing structures in the fire's path, was critically delayed due to the indecisiveness of the Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Bloodworth. By the time large-scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night, the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm which defeated such measures. The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City. Order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires. The fears of the homeless focused on the French and Dutch, England's enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo-Dutch War; these substantial immigrant groups became victims of street violence. On Tuesday, the fire spread over nearly the whole city, destroying St Paul's Cathedral and leaping the River Fleet to threaten Charles II's court at Whitehall. Coordinated firefighting efforts were simultaneously getting underway. The battle to put out the fire is considered to have been won by two key factors: the strong east wind dropped, and the Tower of London garrison used gunpowder to create effective firebreaks, halting further spread eastward.

The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming. Flight from London and settlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II, who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees. Various schemes for rebuilding the city were proposed, some of them very radical. After the fire, London was reconstructed on essentially the same medieval street plan, which still exists today.^[5]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ All dates are given according to the Julian calendar. Note that, when recording British history, it is usual to use the dates recorded at the time of the event. Any dates between 1 January and 25 March have their year adjusted to start on 1 January according to the New Style.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference tindeath was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference porterdeath was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Hanson 2001, 326–33 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Reddaway, 27

Read More

 

6 September 1962 – Archaeologist Peter Marsden discovers the first of the Blackfriars Ships dating back to the second century AD in the Blackfriars area of the banks of the River Thames in London.

Blackfriars shipwrecks

Shipwrecks on the River Thames in London discovered in the 1960s–70s

The Blackfriars shipwrecks were a series of wrecks discovered by archaeologist Peter Marsden in the Blackfriars area of the banks of the River Thames in London, England. The wrecks were discovered while building a riverside embankment wall along the River Thames. Marsden discovered the first on 6 September 1962 and the next two were discovered in 1970. A later discovery added to the previous three wrecks, constituting now what is known as the four Blackfriars wrecks.

Read More

 

7 September 1856 – The Saimaa Canal is inaugurated

Saimaa Canal

Transportation canal in Finland

The Saimaa Canal (Finnish: Saimaan kanava; Swedish: Saima kanal; Russian: Сайменский канал) is a transportation canal that connects lake Saimaa with the Gulf of Finland near Vyborg, Russia. The canal was built from 1845 to 1856 and opened on 7 September 1856 (Old Style: 26 August 1856). It was overhauled and widened in 1963–1968.

A system of inland waterways and canals in the 120 interconnected lakes of the south-central and south-east part of Finland (Finnish Lakeland) are reached through the canal. The network of deep channels in Lake Saimaa with at least a draught of 4.2 m (14 ft) covers 814 km (506 mi). The deep channels extend all the way to Kuopio in Central Finland.

Read More

 

8 September 1978 – Black Friday, a massacre by soldiers against protesters in Tehran, results in 88 deaths, it marks the beginning of the end of the monarchy in Iran.

Black Friday (1978)

This article is about the 1978 Black Friday pivotal event protest. For other events, see List of Black Fridays. For the video game, see 1979 Revolution: Black Friday.

Mass shooting of protesters in Pahlavi Iran on 8 September 1978

Black Friday (Persian: جمعه سیاه, romanized: Jom'e-ye Siyāh) is the name given to an incident occurring on 8 September 1978 (17 Shahrivar 1357 in the Iranian calendar) in Iran,^[9] in which 64,^[1] or at least 100^[10][11] people were shot dead and 205 injured by the Pahlavi military in Jaleh Square (Persian: میدان ژاله, romanized: Meydān-e Jāleh) in Tehran.^[12][13] According to the military historian Spencer C. Tucker, 94 were killed on Black Friday, consisting of 64 protesters and 30 government security forces.^[2] The deaths were described as the pivotal event in the Iranian Revolution that ended any "hope for compromise" between the protest movement and the regime of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.^[14]

1. ^ ^{a b} Foltz, Richard (2016). Iran in World History. Oxford University Press. p. 108.
2. ^ ^{a b} Tucker, Spencer C. (2017). The Roots and Consequences of Civil Wars and Revolutions: Conflicts that Changed World History. ABC-CLIO. p. 439.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Baghi was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Shakman Hurd, Elizabeth (2009). The Politics of Secularism in International Relations. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400828012.
5. ^ Berg-Sørensen, Anders (2016). Contesting Secularism: Comparative Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 9781317160243.
6. ^ Thiessen, Mark (2008). An Island of Stability: The Islamic Revolution of Iran and the Dutch Opinion. Sidestone Press. ISBN 9789088900198.
7. ^ ^{a b} "Emad Baghi :: English". emadbaghi.com. Retrieved 8 September 2018.
8. ^ Andrew Scott Cooper, The Fall of Heaven: The Pahlavis and the Final Days of Imperial Iran Hardcover – 19 July 2016 ISBN 0805098976
9. ^ Abrahamian, Ervand (21 July 1982). Iran Between Two Revolutions. Princeton University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0691101347. black friday iran.
10. ^ Razipour, Suzanne Maloney and Keian (24 January 2019). "The Iranian revolution—A timeline of events". Brookings. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
11. ^ "Timeline of the Iranian revolution". Reuters. 11 February 2019. Retrieved 7 September 2020.
12. ^ Bashiriyeh, Hossein (27 April 2012). The State and Revolution in Iran (RLE Iran D). Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781136820892.
13. ^ Fischer, Michael M. J. (15 July 2003). Iran: From Religious Dispute to Revolution. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 9780299184735.
14. ^ Abrahamian, Ervand, History of Modern Iran, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 160–1

Read More

 

The Role of Dry Needling in Hallux Valgus

 

9 September 1924 – Hanapepe massacre occurs on Kauai, Hawaii.

Hanapepe massacre

Interethnic dispute in Kauaʻi, Hawaiʻi (1924)

The Hanapēpē Massacre (also called the Battle of Hanapēpē) occurred on September 9, 1924, when an interethnic dispute amongst Filipino strike organizers in Hanapēpē, Kaua'i resulted in a violent exchange between local police officers and Filipinos.^[1] The conflict began when two Ilocano youth, allegedly breaking the Filipino-led labor strike, were detained and harassed by a group of Visayans at the Hanapepe strike camp.^[2] When the local police were called to settle the dispute, they arrived with a group of heavily armed special deputies.^[1] Upon arrival, the officers issued warrants of arrest for the two detained Illocanos, causing the collection of Filipino strikers to rally in opposition.^[2] Despite previously ridiculing the two Ilocanos, the remaining Filipinos armed themselves and demanded the boys be released.^[2] A violent exchange ensued wherein sixteen Filipino laborers and four police officers were left dead.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Beechert, Edward D. (1985). Working in Hawaii: a Labor History. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 221–222. ISBN 0-8248-0890-8. OCLC 906458431.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Reinecke, John E. (1997). The Filipino Piecemeal Sugar Strike of 1924–1925. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 75–76. ISBN 978-0-8248-6253-4. OCLC 1024022244.

Read More

 

10 September 1960 – At the Summer Olympics in Rome, Abebe Bikila becomes the first sub-Saharan African to win a gold medal, winning the marathon in bare feet.

Abebe Bikila

Ethiopian marathon runner (1932–1973)

This article is about a person whose name includes a patronymic. The article properly refers to the person by his given name, Abebe, and not as Bikila.

This article contains Ethiopic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Ethiopic characters.

Shambel Abebe Bikila (Amharic: ሻምበል አበበ ቢቂላ; August 7, 1932 – October 25, 1973) was an Ethiopian marathon runner who was a back-to-back Olympic marathon champion. He was the first Ethiopian Olympic gold medalist, winning his and Africa's first gold medal at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome while running barefoot.^[3] At the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, he won his second gold medal, making him the first athlete to successfully defend an Olympic marathon title. In both victories, he ran in world record time.

Born in Shewa, Abebe moved to Addis Ababa around 1952 and joined the 5th Infantry Regiment of the Ethiopian Imperial Guard, an elite infantry division that safeguarded the emperor of Ethiopia. Abebe served in the Kagnew Battalion during Korean War.^[4]

Enlisting as a soldier before his athletic career, he rose to the rank of shambel (captain). Abebe participated in a total of sixteen marathons. He placed second on his first marathon in Addis Ababa, won twelve other races, and finished fifth in the 1963 Boston Marathon. In July 1967, he sustained the first of several sports-related leg injuries that prevented him from finishing his last two marathons. Abebe was a pioneer in long-distance running. Mamo Wolde, Juma Ikangaa, Tegla Loroupe, Paul Tergat, and Haile Gebrselassie—all recipients of the New York Road Runners' Abebe Bikila Award—are a few of the athletes who have followed in his footsteps to establish East Africa as a force in long-distance running.^[5][6][7]

On March 22, 1969, Abebe was paralysed due to a car accident. He regained some upper-body mobility, but he never walked again. While he was receiving medical treatment in England, Abebe competed in archery and table tennis at the 1970 Stoke Mandeville Games in London. Those games were an early predecessor of the Paralympic Games. He competed in both sports at a 1971 competition for disabled people in Norway and won its cross-country sleigh-riding event. Abebe died at age 41 in 1973 of a cerebral haemorrhage related to his accident four years earlier. He received a state funeral, and Emperor Haile Selassie declared a national day of mourning. Many schools, venues, and events, including Abebe Bikila Stadium in Addis Ababa, are named after him. He is the subject of biographies and films documenting his athletic career, and he is often featured in publications about the marathon and the Olympics.

1. ^ ^{a b} Evans, Hilary; Gjerde, Arild; Heijmans, Jeroen; Mallon, Bill; et al. "Abebe Bikila". Olympics at Sports-Reference.com. Sports Reference LLC. Archived from the original on April 17, 2020.
2. ^ "Abebe Bikila". trackfield.brinkster.net. Retrieved October 10, 2019.
3. ^ "Remembering Bikila's 1960 Olympic marathon victory on its 60th anniversary". World Athletics. Retrieved August 8, 2021.
4. ^ '6·25 전쟁' 참전 에디오피아 마라토너, 한국 두 번 살려준 사연
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference BenyoHenderson3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Pitsiladis, Wang & Wolfarth (2011), p. 186
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Gebreselassie was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Read More

 

11 September 1941 – Construction begins on The Pentagon.

The Pentagon

Headquarters of the US Department of Defense in Arlington, Virginia

"The Pentagon" is also a metonym for the United States Department of Defense. For other uses, see The Pentagon (disambiguation).

The Pentagon is the headquarters building of the United States Department of Defense, in Arlington County, Virginia, across the Potomac River from Washington, D.C. The building was constructed on an accelerated schedule during World War II. As a symbol of the U.S. military, the phrase The Pentagon is often used as a metonym for the Department of Defense and its leadership.

The building was designed by American architect George Bergstrom and built by contractor John McShain. Ground was broken on 11 September 1941, and the building was dedicated on 15 January 1943. General Brehon Somervell provided the major impetus to gain Congressional approval for the project;^[5] Colonel Leslie Groves was responsible for overseeing the project for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which supervised it.

The Pentagon is the world's second largest office building, with about 6.5 million square feet (600,000 m²) of floor space, of which 3.7 million square feet (340,000 m²) are used as offices.^[6][7] It has five sides, five floors above ground, two basement levels, and five ring corridors per floor with a total of 17.5 mi (28.2 km)^[7] of corridors, with a central five-acre (2.0 ha) pentagonal plaza. About 23,000 military and civilian employees work in the Pentagon, as well as about 3,000 non-defense support personnel.^[7]

In 2001, the Pentagon was damaged during the September 11 attacks. Five al-Qaeda hijackers flew American Airlines Flight 77 into the western side of the building, killing themselves and 184 other people: 59 on the airplane and 125 in the Pentagon.^[8] It was the first significant foreign attack on federal facilities in the capital area since the burning of Washington during the War of 1812.^{[citation needed]} Following the attacks, the western side of the building was repaired, with a small indoor memorial and chapel added at the point of impact. An outdoor memorial dedicated to the Pentagon victims of 9/11 opened in 2008.

1. ^ Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). "What Was the U.S. GDP Then?". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 30 November 2023. United States Gross Domestic Product deflator figures follow the MeasuringWorth series.
2. ^ "Facts: Navigating The Pentagon". pentagontours.osd.mil. Archived from the original on 11 January 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
3. ^ "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 9 July 2010.
4. ^ "Virginia Landmarks Register". Virginia Department of Historic Resources. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2013.
5. ^ Vogel (2007), p. ^{[page needed]}.
6. ^ Hancock, Michaila (27 August 2015). "Pentagon: the world's largest office building - in infographics". The Architects' Journal. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 27 February 2021.
7. ^ ^{a b c} "The Pentagon, Facts & Figures". Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2014.
8. ^ Stone, Andrea (20 August 2002). "Military's aid and comfort ease 9/11 survivors' burden". USA TODAY. Archived from the original on 11 March 2015. Retrieved 12 September 2021.

Read More

 

12 September 2001 – Ansett Australia, Australia's first commercial interstate airline, collapses due to increased strain on the international airline industry, leaving 10,000 people unemployed.

Ansett Australia

Defunct domestic airline of Australia (1936–2002)

"Ansett" redirects here. For other uses, see Ansett (disambiguation).

Ansett Australia was a major Australian airline group, based in Melbourne, Victoria. The airline flew domestically within Australia and from the 1990s to destinations in Asia.^[1] After operating for 65 years, the airline was placed into administration in 2001 following a financial collapse and subsequent organised liquidation in 2002, subject to deed of company arrangement. The last flight touched down on 5 March 2002.

1. ^ Cook, Terry (15 September 2001). "Australia's second biggest airline collapses". World Socialist Web Site. Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 16 October 2007.

Read More

 

13 September 1985 – Super Mario Bros. is released in Japan for the NES, which starts the Super Mario series of platforming games.

Super Mario Bros.

1985 video game

This article is about the 1985 video game. For the series, see Super Mario. For other uses, see Super Mario Bros. (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Mario Bros.

1985 video game

Super Mario Bros.^[b] is a platform game developed and published in 1985 by Nintendo for the Famicom in Japan and for the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in North America. It is the successor to the 1983 arcade game Mario Bros. and the first game in the Super Mario series. Following a US test market release for the NES, it was converted to international arcades on the Nintendo VS. System in early 1986. The NES version received a wide release in North America that year and in PAL regions in 1987.

Players control Mario, or his brother Luigi in the multiplayer mode, to explore the Mushroom Kingdom to rescue Princess Toadstool from King Koopa (later named Bowser). They traverse side-scrolling stages while avoiding hazards such as enemies and pits with the aid of power-ups such as the Super Mushroom, Fire Flower, and Starman.

The game was designed by Shigeru Miyamoto and Takashi Tezuka as "a grand culmination" of the Famicom team's three years of game mechanics and programming, drawing from their experiences working on Devil World and the side-scrollers Excitebike and Kung Fu to advance their previous work on platforming "athletic games" such as Donkey Kong and Mario Bros. The design of the first level, World 1-1, is a tutorial for platform gameplay.

Super Mario Bros. is frequently cited as one of the greatest video games of all time, and is particularly admired for its precise controls. It has been re-released on most Nintendo systems, and is one of the bestselling games of all time, with more than 58 million copies sold worldwide. It is credited alongside the NES as one of the key factors in reviving the video game industry after the 1983 crash, and helped popularize the side-scrolling platform game genre. Koji Kondo's soundtrack is one of the earliest and most popular in video games, making music a centerpiece of game design and has since been considered one of the best video game soundtracks of all time as a result. Mario has become prominent in popular culture, and Super Mario Bros. began a multimedia franchise including a long-running game series, an animated television series, a Japanese anime feature film, a live-action feature film and an animated feature film.

1. ^ "The history of Super Mario". Nintendo. Archived from the original on February 1, 2021. Retrieved February 17, 2021. Released: Oct. 18, 1985

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

Read More

 

14 September 2007 – Financial crisis of 2007–2008: The Northern Rock bank experiences the first bank run in the United Kingdom in 150 years.

2007–2008 financial crisis

Worldwide economic crisis

The 2007–2008 financial crisis, or Global Economic Crisis (GEC), was the most severe worldwide economic crisis since the Great Depression. Predatory lending in the form of subprime mortgages targeting low-income homebuyers,^[1] excessive risk-taking by global financial institutions,^[2] a continuous buildup of toxic assets within banks, and the bursting of the United States housing bubble culminated in a "perfect storm", which led to the Great Recession.

Mortgage-backed securities (MBS) tied to American real estate, as well as a vast web of derivatives linked to those MBS, collapsed in value. Financial institutions worldwide suffered severe damage,^[3] reaching a climax with the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers on September 15, 2008, and a subsequent international banking crisis.^[4]

The preconditioning for the financial crisis was complex and multi-causal.^[5][6][7] Almost two decades prior, the U.S. Congress had passed legislation encouraging financing for affordable housing.^[8] However, in 1999, parts of the Glass-Steagall legislation, which had been adopted in 1933, were repealed, permitting financial institutions to commingle their commercial (risk-averse) and proprietary trading (risk-taking) operations.^[9] Arguably the largest contributor to the conditions necessary for financial collapse was the rapid development in predatory financial products which targeted low-income, low-information homebuyers who largely belonged to racial minorities.^[10] This market development went unattended by regulators and thus caught the U.S. government by surprise.^[11]

After the onset of the crisis, governments deployed massive bail-outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies to prevent a collapse of the global financial system.^[12] In the U.S., the October 3, $800 billion Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 failed to slow the economic free-fall, but the similarly-sized American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which included a substantial payroll tax credit, saw economic indicators reverse and stabilize less than a month after its February 17 enactment.^[13] The crisis sparked the Great Recession which resulted in increases in unemployment^[14] and suicide,^[15] and decreases in institutional trust^[16] and fertility,^[17] among other metrics. The recession was a significant precondition for the European debt crisis.

In 2010, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act was enacted in the US as a response to the crisis to "promote the financial stability of the United States".^[18] The Basel III capital and liquidity standards were also adopted by countries around the world.^[19][20]

1. ^ "Victimizing the Borrowers: Predatory Lending's Role in the Subprime Mortgage Crisis". Knowledge@Wharton. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
2. ^ Williams, Mark (2010). Uncontrolled Risk. McGraw-Hill Education. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-07-163829-6.
3. ^ "The Giant Pool of Money". This American Life. May 9, 2008.
4. ^ Williams, Mark (2010). Uncontrolled Risk. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-163829-6.
5. ^ "Why Didn't Bank Regulators Prevent the Financial Crisis?". www.stlouisfed.org. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
6. ^ Duffie, Darrell (February 2019). "Prone to Fail: The Pre-crisis Financial System". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 33 (1): 81–106. doi:10.1257/jep.33.1.81. ISSN 0895-3309. S2CID 159107916.
7. ^ "The U.S. Financial Crisis". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
8. ^ "Don't blame the affordable housing goals for the financial crisis". NCRC. January 24, 2018. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
9. ^ Maverick, J.B. (October 22, 2019). "Consequences of The Glass-Steagall Act Repeal". Investopedia. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
10. ^ Sarra, Janis; Wade, Cheryl L. (July 2020). Predatory Lending Practices Prior to the Global Financial Crisis. pp. 23–68. doi:10.1017/9781108865715.004. ISBN 9781108865715. S2CID 234722538. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
11. ^ "Predatory lending: A decade of warnings". Center for Public Integrity. May 6, 2009. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
12. ^ Sakelaris, Nicholas (February 5, 2014). "Paulson: Why I bailed out the banks and what would have happened if I hadn't". Dallas Business Journal. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
13. ^ Wilson, Daniel J (August 1, 2012). "Fiscal Spending Jobs Multipliers: Evidence from the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act" (PDF). American Economic Journal: Economic Policy. 4 (3): 251–282. doi:10.1257/pol.4.3.251. ISSN 1945-7731.
14. ^ "Chart Book: The Legacy of the Great Recession". Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
15. ^ Chang, Shu-Sen; Stuckler, David; Yip, Paul; Gunnell, David (September 17, 2013). "Impact of 2008 global economic crisis on suicide: time trend study in 54 countries". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 347: f5239. doi:10.1136/bmj.f5239. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 3776046. PMID 24046155.
16. ^ Wolfers, Justin (March 9, 2011). "Mistrust and the Great Recession". Freakonomics. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
17. ^ Schneider, Daniel (2015). "The Great Recession, Fertility, and Uncertainty: Evidence From the United States". Journal of Marriage and Family. 77 (5): 1144–1156. doi:10.1111/jomf.12212. ISSN 1741-3737.
18. ^ Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Act of Congress 111-203). The United States Congress. July 21, 2010.
19. ^ James, Margaret. "Basel III". Investopedia. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
20. ^ "RCAP on timeliness: monitoring reports". Bank for International Settlements. October 18, 2017.

Read More

 

14 September 2007 – Financial crisis of 2007–2008: The Northern Rock bank experiences the first bank run in the United Kingdom in 150 years.

2007–2008 financial crisis

Worldwide economic crisis

The 2007–2008 financial crisis, or Global Economic Crisis (GEC), was the most severe worldwide economic crisis since the Great Depression. Predatory lending in the form of subprime mortgages targeting low-income homebuyers,^[1] excessive risk-taking by global financial institutions,^[2] a continuous buildup of toxic assets within banks, and the bursting of the United States housing bubble culminated in a "perfect storm", which led to the Great Recession.

Mortgage-backed securities (MBS) tied to American real estate, as well as a vast web of derivatives linked to those MBS, collapsed in value. Financial institutions worldwide suffered severe damage,^[3] reaching a climax with the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers on September 15, 2008, and a subsequent international banking crisis.^[4]

The preconditioning for the financial crisis was complex and multi-causal.^[5][6][7] Almost two decades prior, the U.S. Congress had passed legislation encouraging financing for affordable housing.^[8] However, in 1999, parts of the Glass-Steagall legislation, which had been adopted in 1933, were repealed, permitting financial institutions to commingle their commercial (risk-averse) and proprietary trading (risk-taking) operations.^[9] Arguably the largest contributor to the conditions necessary for financial collapse was the rapid development in predatory financial products which targeted low-income, low-information homebuyers who largely belonged to racial minorities.^[10] This market development went unattended by regulators and thus caught the U.S. government by surprise.^[11]

After the onset of the crisis, governments deployed massive bail-outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies to prevent a collapse of the global financial system.^[12] In the U.S., the October 3, $800 billion Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 failed to slow the economic free-fall, but the similarly-sized American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, which included a substantial payroll tax credit, saw economic indicators reverse and stabilize less than a month after its February 17 enactment.^[13] The crisis sparked the Great Recession which resulted in increases in unemployment^[14] and suicide,^[15] and decreases in institutional trust^[16] and fertility,^[17] among other metrics. The recession was a significant precondition for the European debt crisis.

In 2010, the Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act was enacted in the US as a response to the crisis to "promote the financial stability of the United States".^[18] The Basel III capital and liquidity standards were also adopted by countries around the world.^[19][20]

1. ^ "Victimizing the Borrowers: Predatory Lending's Role in the Subprime Mortgage Crisis". Knowledge@Wharton. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
2. ^ Williams, Mark (2010). Uncontrolled Risk. McGraw-Hill Education. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-07-163829-6.
3. ^ "The Giant Pool of Money". This American Life. May 9, 2008.
4. ^ Williams, Mark (2010). Uncontrolled Risk. McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 978-0-07-163829-6.
5. ^ "Why Didn't Bank Regulators Prevent the Financial Crisis?". www.stlouisfed.org. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
6. ^ Duffie, Darrell (February 2019). "Prone to Fail: The Pre-crisis Financial System". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 33 (1): 81–106. doi:10.1257/jep.33.1.81. ISSN 0895-3309. S2CID 159107916.
7. ^ "The U.S. Financial Crisis". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
8. ^ "Don't blame the affordable housing goals for the financial crisis". NCRC. January 24, 2018. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
9. ^ Maverick, J.B. (October 22, 2019). "Consequences of The Glass-Steagall Act Repeal". Investopedia. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
10. ^ Sarra, Janis; Wade, Cheryl L. (July 2020). Predatory Lending Practices Prior to the Global Financial Crisis. pp. 23–68. doi:10.1017/9781108865715.004. ISBN 9781108865715. S2CID 234722538. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
11. ^ "Predatory lending: A decade of warnings". Center for Public Integrity. May 6, 2009. Retrieved August 5, 2021.
12. ^ Sakelaris, Nicholas (February 5, 2014). "Paulson: Why I bailed out the banks and what would have happened if I hadn't". Dallas Business Journal. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
13. ^ Wilson, Daniel J (August 1, 2012). "Fiscal Spending Jobs Multipliers: Evidence from the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act" (PDF). American Economic Journal: Economic Policy. 4 (3): 251–282. doi:10.1257/pol.4.3.251. ISSN 1945-7731.
14. ^ "Chart Book: The Legacy of the Great Recession". Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
15. ^ Chang, Shu-Sen; Stuckler, David; Yip, Paul; Gunnell, David (September 17, 2013). "Impact of 2008 global economic crisis on suicide: time trend study in 54 countries". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 347: f5239. doi:10.1136/bmj.f5239. ISSN 1756-1833. PMC 3776046. PMID 24046155.
16. ^ Wolfers, Justin (March 9, 2011). "Mistrust and the Great Recession". Freakonomics. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
17. ^ Schneider, Daniel (2015). "The Great Recession, Fertility, and Uncertainty: Evidence From the United States". Journal of Marriage and Family. 77 (5): 1144–1156. doi:10.1111/jomf.12212. ISSN 1741-3737.
18. ^ Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act (Act of Congress 111-203). The United States Congress. July 21, 2010.
19. ^ James, Margaret. "Basel III". Investopedia. Retrieved April 27, 2021.
20. ^ "RCAP on timeliness: monitoring reports". Bank for International Settlements. October 18, 2017.

Read More

 

15 September 1954 – Marilyn Monroe's iconic skirt scene is shot during filming for The Seven Year Itch.

White dress of Marilyn Monroe

Dress worn by Marilyn Monroe in The Seven Year Itch

Marilyn Monroe wore a white dress in the 1955 film The Seven Year Itch, directed by Billy Wilder. It was created by costume designer William Travilla and worn in the movie's best-known scene.^[1] The image of it and her above a windy subway grating has been described as one of the most iconic images of the 20th century.^[2]

1. ^ "William Travilla Biography (1920–1990)". Film Reference. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
2. ^ Shmoop (11 July 2010). History of Fashion in America: Shmoop US History Guide. Shmoop University Inc. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-61062-141-0. Retrieved 24 May 2011.^{[permanent dead link]}

Read More

 

16 September 1961 – Typhoon Nancy, with possibly the strongest winds ever measured in a tropical cyclone, makes landfall in Osaka, Japan, killing 173 people.

Typhoon Nancy (1961)

Pacific typhoon in 1961

Super Typhoon Nancy, also known as the 2nd Muroto Typhoon (第二室戸台風, Daini-muroto Taifū), was an extremely powerful tropical cyclone of the 1961 Pacific typhoon season and one of the most intense tropical cyclones on record. The system possibly had the strongest winds ever measured in a tropical cyclone, with 345 km/h (215 mph) winds, tied with Hurricane Patricia of 2015. Nancy caused extensive damage, as well as at least 202 deaths and nearly 5,000 injuries in Japan and elsewhere, in September 1961.

Read More