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28 May 1937 – Volkswagen, the German automobile manufacturer is founded.

Volkswagen

German automobile manufacturer

"VW" redirects here. For other uses, see VW (disambiguation).

This article is about Volkswagen passenger cars. For the parent company, see Volkswagen Group. For Volkswagen vans, trucks and buses, see Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles.

Volkswagen (VW; German pronunciation: [ˈfolksˌvaːɡn̩] ^ⓘ)^{[Note 1]} is a German automobile manufacturer based in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. Established in 1937 by The German Labour Front, it was revitalized into the global brand it is today after World War II by British Army officer Ivan Hirst. The company is well known for the Beetle and serves as the flagship marque of the Volkswagen Group, which became the world's largest automotive manufacturer by global sales in 2016 and 2017.^[1]

The group's largest market is China (including Hong Kong and Macau), which accounts for 40% of its sales and profits.^[2][3] The name Volkswagen derives from the German words Volk and Wagen, meaning 'people's car'.

Cite error: There are <ref group=Note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=Note}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Bomey, Nathan (30 January 2017). "Volkswagen passes Toyota as world's largest automaker despite scandal". USA Today. Archived from the original on 11 May 2017. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
2. ^ "China car sales slump ripples globally". BBC News. 12 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
3. ^ "Economic Superpower: Chinese Expansion Has Germany on the Defensive". Spiegel Online. 24 May 2018. Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.

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28 May 1937 – Volkswagen, the German automobile manufacturer is founded.

Volkswagen

German automobile manufacturer

"VW" redirects here. For other uses, see VW (disambiguation).

This article is about Volkswagen passenger cars. For the parent company, see Volkswagen Group. For Volkswagen vans, trucks and buses, see Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles.

Volkswagen (VW; German pronunciation: [ˈfolksˌvaːɡn̩] ^ⓘ)^{[Note 1]} is a German automobile manufacturer based in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. Established in 1937 by The German Labour Front, it was revitalized into the global brand it is today after World War II by British Army officer Ivan Hirst. The company is well known for the Beetle and serves as the flagship marque of the Volkswagen Group, which became the world's largest automotive manufacturer by global sales in 2016 and 2017.^[1]

The group's largest market is China (including Hong Kong and Macau), which accounts for 40% of its sales and profits.^[2][3] The name Volkswagen derives from the German words Volk and Wagen, meaning 'people's car'.

Cite error: There are <ref group=Note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=Note}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ Bomey, Nathan (30 January 2017). "Volkswagen passes Toyota as world's largest automaker despite scandal". USA Today. Archived from the original on 11 May 2017. Retrieved 20 June 2017.
2. ^ "China car sales slump ripples globally". BBC News. 12 October 2018. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
3. ^ "Economic Superpower: Chinese Expansion Has Germany on the Defensive". Spiegel Online. 24 May 2018. Archived from the original on 29 May 2018. Retrieved 18 November 2018.

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29 May 1935 – First flight of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter aeroplane.

Messerschmitt Bf 109

German WWII fighter aircraft family

The Messerschmitt Bf 109 is a monoplane fighter aircraft that was designed and initially produced by the German aircraft manufacturer Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (BFW). Together with the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, the Bf 109 formed the backbone of the Luftwaffe's fighter force during the Second World War.^[3] It was commonly called the Me 109 by Allied aircrew and some German aces/pilots, even though this was not the official model designation.^[4]

The Bf 109 was designed by Willy Messerschmitt and Robert Lusser, who worked at BFW during the early to mid-1930s.^[5] It was conceived as an interceptor. However, later models were developed to fulfill multiple tasks, serving as bomber escort, fighter-bomber, day-, night-, all-weather fighter, ground-attack aircraft, and aerial reconnaissance aircraft. It was one of the most advanced fighters when the fighter first appeared, being furnished with an all-metal monocoque construction, a closed canopy, retractable landing gear, and powered by a liquid-cooled, inverted-V12 aero engine.^[5] First flown on 29 May 1935, the Bf 109 entered operational service during 1937; it first saw combat during the Spanish Civil War.

During the Second World War, the Bf 109 was supplied to several states and was present in quantity on virtually every front in the European theatre; the fighter was still in service at the end of the conflict in 1945.^[3] It continued to be operated by several countries for many years after the conflict. The Bf 109 is the most produced fighter aircraft in history, a total of 34,248 airframes having been produced between 1936 and April 1945.^[1][3] Some of the Bf 109 production took place in Nazi concentration camps through slave labor.

The Bf 109 was flown by the three top-scoring fighter aces of all time, who claimed 928 victories among them while flying with Jagdgeschwader 52, mainly on the Eastern Front. The highest-scoring, Erich Hartmann, was credited with 352 victories. The aircraft was also flown by Hans-Joachim Marseille, the highest-scoring ace in the North African campaign, who shot down 158 enemy aircraft (in about a third of the time). It was also flown by many aces from other countries fighting with Germany, notably the Finn Ilmari Juutilainen, the highest-scoring non-German ace. He scored 58 of his 94 confirmed victories with the Bf 109. Pilots from Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Slovakia and Italy also flew the fighter. Through constant development, the Bf 109 remained competitive with the latest Allied fighter aircraft until the end of the war.^[6]

1. ^ ^{a b} U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Aircraft Division Industry Report, Exhibit I – German Airplane Programs vs Actual Production.
2. ^ Forsgren 2017, p. 41.
3. ^ ^{a b c} Nowarra 1993, p. 189.
4. ^ Wagner & Nowarra 1971, p. 229.
5. ^ ^{a b} Green 1980, pp. 7, 13.
6. ^ Radinger & Otto 1999, pp. 35–37.

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29 May 1935 – First flight of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter aeroplane.

Messerschmitt Bf 109

German WWII fighter aircraft family

The Messerschmitt Bf 109 is a monoplane fighter aircraft that was designed and initially produced by the German aircraft manufacturer Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (BFW). Together with the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, the Bf 109 formed the backbone of the Luftwaffe's fighter force during the Second World War.^[3] It was commonly called the Me 109 by Allied aircrew and some German aces/pilots, even though this was not the official model designation.^[4]

The Bf 109 was designed by Willy Messerschmitt and Robert Lusser, who worked at BFW during the early to mid-1930s.^[5] It was conceived as an interceptor. However, later models were developed to fulfill multiple tasks, serving as bomber escort, fighter-bomber, day-, night-, all-weather fighter, ground-attack aircraft, and aerial reconnaissance aircraft. It was one of the most advanced fighters when the fighter first appeared, being furnished with an all-metal monocoque construction, a closed canopy, retractable landing gear, and powered by a liquid-cooled, inverted-V12 aero engine.^[5] First flown on 29 May 1935, the Bf 109 entered operational service during 1937; it first saw combat during the Spanish Civil War.

During the Second World War, the Bf 109 was supplied to several states and was present in quantity on virtually every front in the European theatre; the fighter was still in service at the end of the conflict in 1945.^[3] It continued to be operated by several countries for many years after the conflict. The Bf 109 is the most produced fighter aircraft in history, a total of 34,248 airframes having been produced between 1936 and April 1945.^[1][3] Some of the Bf 109 production took place in Nazi concentration camps through slave labor.

The Bf 109 was flown by the three top-scoring fighter aces of all time, who claimed 928 victories among them while flying with Jagdgeschwader 52, mainly on the Eastern Front. The highest-scoring, Erich Hartmann, was credited with 352 victories. The aircraft was also flown by Hans-Joachim Marseille, the highest-scoring ace in the North African campaign, who shot down 158 enemy aircraft (in about a third of the time). It was also flown by many aces from other countries fighting with Germany, notably the Finn Ilmari Juutilainen, the highest-scoring non-German ace. He scored 58 of his 94 confirmed victories with the Bf 109. Pilots from Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Croatia, Slovakia and Italy also flew the fighter. Through constant development, the Bf 109 remained competitive with the latest Allied fighter aircraft until the end of the war.^[6]

1. ^ ^{a b} U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Aircraft Division Industry Report, Exhibit I – German Airplane Programs vs Actual Production.
2. ^ Forsgren 2017, p. 41.
3. ^ ^{a b c} Nowarra 1993, p. 189.
4. ^ Wagner & Nowarra 1971, p. 229.
5. ^ ^{a b} Green 1980, pp. 7, 13.
6. ^ Radinger & Otto 1999, pp. 35–37.

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30 May 1588 – The last ship of the Spanish Armada sets sail from Lisbon heading for the English Channel.

Spanish Armada

Fleet sailing against England in 1588

This article is about the Spanish fleet that sailed against England in 1588. For the modern navy of Spain, see Spanish Navy.

The Spanish Armada (often known as Invincible Armada, or the Enterprise of England, Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, lit. 'Great and Most Fortunate Navy') was a Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, commanded by Alonso de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia, an aristocrat without previous naval experience appointed by Philip II of Spain. His orders were to sail up the English Channel, join with the army of Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma in Flanders, and escort an invasion force that would land in England and overthrow Elizabeth I. Its purpose was to reinstate Catholicism in England, end English support for the Dutch Republic, and prevent attacks by English and Dutch privateers against Spanish interests in the Americas.

The Spanish were opposed by an English fleet based in Plymouth. Faster and more manoeuvrable than the larger Spanish galleons, its ships were able to attack the Armada as it sailed up the Channel. Several subordinates advised Medina Sidonia first to enter Plymouth Sound and attack the English fleet before it could leave harbour and then to anchor in the Solent and occupy the Isle of Wight, but he refused to deviate from his instructions to join with Parma. Although the Armada reached Calais largely intact, while awaiting communication from Parma, it was attacked at night by English fire ships and forced to scatter. The Armada suffered further losses in the ensuing Battle of Gravelines and was in danger of running aground on the Dutch coast when the wind changed, allowing it to escape into the North Sea. Pursued by the English, the Spanish ships returned home via Scotland and Ireland. Up to 24 ships were wrecked along the way before the rest managed to get home. Among the factors contributing to the defeat and withdrawal of the Armada were bad weather conditions and the better employment of naval guns and battle tactics by the English.

The expedition was the largest engagement of the undeclared Anglo-Spanish War. The following year, England organized a similar large-scale campaign against Spain, known as the "English Armada", and sometimes called the "counter-Armada of 1589", which failed. Three further Spanish armadas were sent against England and Ireland in 1596, 1597, and 1601,^[23] but these likewise ended in failure.

1. ^ Mattingly p. 401: "the defeat of the Spanish armada really was decisive"
2. ^ Parker & Martin p. 5: "an unmitigated disaster"
3. ^ Vego p. 148: "the decisive defeat of the Spanish armada"
4. ^ ^{a b} Martin & Parker 1999, p. 40.
5. ^ ^{a b} Martin & Parker 1999, p. 65.
6. ^ ^{a b c d} Casado Soto 1991, p. 117.
7. ^ Kinard, Jeff. Artillery: An Illustrated History of Its Impact. p. 92.
8. ^ Burke, Peter. The New Cambridge Modern History: Volume 13, Companion Volume.
9. ^ Martin & Parker 1999, pp. 60–63.
10. ^ Kamen, Henry (2014). Spain, 1469–1714: A Society of Conflict. Routledge. p. 123.
11. ^ Martin & Parker 1999, p. 94.
12. ^ Lewis 1960, p. 184.
13. ^ John Knox Laughton, State Papers Relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, Anno 1588, printed for the Navy Records Society, MDCCCXCV, Vol. II, pp. 8–9, Wynter to Walsyngham: indicates that the ships used as fire-ships were drawn from those at hand in the fleet and not hulks from Dover.
14. ^ Bicheno 2012, p. 262.
15. ^ Lewis 1960, p. 182.
16. ^ Aubrey N. Newman, David T. Johnson, P. M. Jones (1985). The Eighteenth Century Annual Bulletin of Historical Literature 69 (1), 108. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8314.1985.tb00698.
17. ^ Casado Soto 1991, p. 122.
18. ^ Mattingly 2005, p. 426.
19. ^ Lewis 1960, p. 208.
20. ^ Gracia Rivas, Manuel (1991). The Medical Services of the Gran Armada. In Rodríguez-Salgado, M. J. and Adams, Simon (eds.). "England, Spain and the Gran Armada, 1585–1604". Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0389209554. p. 212
21. ^ Lewis 1960, pp. 208–209.
22. ^ Hanson 2011, p. 563.
23. ^ Graham 1972, pp. 258–261.

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31 May 2005 – Vanity Fair reveals that Mark Felt was "Deep Throat".

Mark Felt

Watergate scandal whistleblower (1913–2008)

For the film, see Mark Felt: The Man Who Brought Down the White House.

William Mark Felt Sr. (August 17, 1913 – December 18, 2008) was an American law enforcement officer who worked for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) from 1942 to 1973 and was known for his role in the Watergate scandal. Felt was an FBI special agent who eventually rose to the position of Deputy Director, the Bureau's second-highest-ranking post. Felt worked in several FBI field offices prior to his promotion to the Bureau's headquarters. In 1980, he was convicted of having violated the civil rights of people thought to be associated with members of the Weather Underground, by ordering FBI agents to break into their homes and search the premises as part of an attempt to prevent bombings. He was ordered to pay a fine, but was pardoned by President Ronald Reagan during his appeal.

In 2005, at age 91, Felt revealed to Vanity Fair magazine that during his tenure as Deputy Director of the FBI he had been the anonymous source known as "Deep Throat",^[1][2] who provided The Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein with critical information about the Watergate scandal, which ultimately led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974. Woodward, who had long vowed not to reveal Deep Throat's identity while the source was still alive, quickly confirmed Felt's claim. Though Felt's identity as Deep Throat was suspected, including by Nixon himself,^[3] it had generally remained a secret for 30 years. Felt finally acknowledged that he was Deep Throat after being persuaded by his daughter to reveal his identity before his death.^[4]

Felt published two memoirs: The FBI Pyramid in 1979 (updated in 2006) and A G-Man's Life, written with John O'Connor in 2006. In 2012, the FBI released Felt's personnel file covering the period from 1941 to 1978. The agency also released files pertaining to an extortion threat made against Felt in 1956.^[5]

1. ^ John D. O'Connor, "I'm the Guy They Called Deep Throat" Archived June 24, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, Vanity Fair, July 2005
2. ^ McDermott, Annette (May 10, 2018). "How 'Deep Throat' Took Down Nixon From Inside the FBI". History.com. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved January 24, 2021.
3. ^ Robert Yoon; Stephen Bach (June 3, 2005). "Tapes: Nixon suspected Felt". CNN. Archived from the original on June 2, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2017.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference i'm the guy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ "40 years later, remembering Watergate scandal's 'Deep Throat'". CNN. June 15, 2012. Archived from the original on June 3, 2021. Retrieved June 17, 2012.

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31 May 2005 – Vanity Fair reveals that Mark Felt was "Deep Throat".

Mark Felt

Watergate scandal whistleblower (1913–2008)

For the film, see Mark Felt: The Man Who Brought Down the White House.

William Mark Felt Sr. (August 17, 1913 – December 18, 2008) was an American law enforcement officer who worked for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) from 1942 to 1973 and was known for his role in the Watergate scandal. Felt was an FBI special agent who eventually rose to the position of Deputy Director, the Bureau's second-highest-ranking post. Felt worked in several FBI field offices prior to his promotion to the Bureau's headquarters. In 1980, he was convicted of having violated the civil rights of people thought to be associated with members of the Weather Underground, by ordering FBI agents to break into their homes and search the premises as part of an attempt to prevent bombings. He was ordered to pay a fine, but was pardoned by President Ronald Reagan during his appeal.

In 2005, at age 91, Felt revealed to Vanity Fair magazine that during his tenure as Deputy Director of the FBI he had been the anonymous source known as "Deep Throat",^[1][2] who provided The Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein with critical information about the Watergate scandal, which ultimately led to the resignation of President Richard Nixon in 1974. Woodward, who had long vowed not to reveal Deep Throat's identity while the source was still alive, quickly confirmed Felt's claim. Though Felt's identity as Deep Throat was suspected, including by Nixon himself,^[3] it had generally remained a secret for 30 years. Felt finally acknowledged that he was Deep Throat after being persuaded by his daughter to reveal his identity before his death.^[4]

Felt published two memoirs: The FBI Pyramid in 1979 (updated in 2006) and A G-Man's Life, written with John O'Connor in 2006. In 2012, the FBI released Felt's personnel file covering the period from 1941 to 1978. The agency also released files pertaining to an extortion threat made against Felt in 1956.^[5]

1. ^ John D. O'Connor, "I'm the Guy They Called Deep Throat" Archived June 24, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, Vanity Fair, July 2005
2. ^ McDermott, Annette (May 10, 2018). "How 'Deep Throat' Took Down Nixon From Inside the FBI". History.com. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved January 24, 2021.
3. ^ Robert Yoon; Stephen Bach (June 3, 2005). "Tapes: Nixon suspected Felt". CNN. Archived from the original on June 2, 2021. Retrieved July 25, 2017.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference i'm the guy was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ "40 years later, remembering Watergate scandal's 'Deep Throat'". CNN. June 15, 2012. Archived from the original on June 3, 2021. Retrieved June 17, 2012.

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1 June 2009 – Air France Flight 447 crashes into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Brazil on a flight from Rio de Janeiro to Paris. All 228 passengers and crew are killed.

Air France Flight 447

2009 mid-Atlantic ocean aircraft accident

Air France Flight 447 was a scheduled international transatlantic passenger flight from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to Paris, France. On 1 June 2009, inconsistent airspeed indications and miscommunication led to the pilots inadvertently stalling the Airbus A330. They failed to recover the plane from the stall, and the plane crashed into the mid-Atlantic Ocean at 02:14 UTC, killing all 228 passengers and crew on board.^[2]

The Brazilian Navy recovered the first major wreckage and two bodies from the sea within five days of the accident, but the investigation by France's Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety (BEA) was initially hampered because the aircraft's flight recorders were not recovered from the ocean floor until May 2011, nearly two years after the accident.^[3]

The BEA's final report, released at a press conference on 5 July 2012, concluded that the aircraft suffered temporary inconsistencies between the airspeed measurements—likely resulting from ice crystals obstructing the aircraft's pitot tubes—which caused the autopilot to disconnect. The crew reacted incorrectly to this, causing the aircraft to enter an aerodynamic stall which the pilots failed to correct.^{[2]: 79 [4]: 7 [5]} The accident is the deadliest in the history of Air France, as well as the deadliest aviation accident involving the Airbus A330.^[6]

1. ^ BEA first 2009.
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference bea.aero was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Air France crash: Trial ordered for Airbus and airline over 2009 disaster". BBC News. 12 May 2021. Archived from the original on 12 May 2021. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
4. ^ BEA third 2011.
5. ^ Clark, Nicola (29 July 2011). "Report on Air France Crash Points to Pilot Training Issues". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference ASN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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1 June 2009 – Air France Flight 447 crashes into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Brazil on a flight from Rio de Janeiro to Paris. All 228 passengers and crew are killed.

Air France Flight 447

2009 mid-Atlantic ocean aircraft accident

Air France Flight 447 was a scheduled international transatlantic passenger flight from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to Paris, France. On 1 June 2009, inconsistent airspeed indications and miscommunication led to the pilots inadvertently stalling the Airbus A330. They failed to recover the plane from the stall, and the plane crashed into the mid-Atlantic Ocean at 02:14 UTC, killing all 228 passengers and crew on board.^[2]

The Brazilian Navy recovered the first major wreckage and two bodies from the sea within five days of the accident, but the investigation by France's Bureau of Enquiry and Analysis for Civil Aviation Safety (BEA) was initially hampered because the aircraft's flight recorders were not recovered from the ocean floor until May 2011, nearly two years after the accident.^[3]

The BEA's final report, released at a press conference on 5 July 2012, concluded that the aircraft suffered temporary inconsistencies between the airspeed measurements—likely resulting from ice crystals obstructing the aircraft's pitot tubes—which caused the autopilot to disconnect. The crew reacted incorrectly to this, causing the aircraft to enter an aerodynamic stall which the pilots failed to correct.^{[2]: 79 [4]: 7 [5]} The accident is the deadliest in the history of Air France, as well as the deadliest aviation accident involving the Airbus A330.^[6]

1. ^ BEA first 2009.
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference bea.aero was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Air France crash: Trial ordered for Airbus and airline over 2009 disaster". BBC News. 12 May 2021. Archived from the original on 12 May 2021. Retrieved 12 May 2021.
4. ^ BEA third 2011.
5. ^ Clark, Nicola (29 July 2011). "Report on Air France Crash Points to Pilot Training Issues". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference ASN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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2 June 1692 – Bridget Bishop is the first person to be tried for witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts; she was found guilty and later hanged.

Salem witch trials

Legal proceedings in Massachusetts (1692–93)

For other uses, see Salem witch trials (disambiguation).

"Salem Witches" redirects here. For the minor league baseball team, see Salem Witches (baseball).

The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693. More than 200 people were accused.^[1] Thirty people were found guilty, nineteen of whom were executed by hanging (fourteen women and five men). One other man, Giles Corey, died under torture after refusing to enter a plea, and at least five people died in the disease-ridden jails.^[2][1]

Arrests were made in numerous towns beyond Salem Village (known today as Danvers) and its regional center Salem Town, notably in Andover and Topsfield.^[3] Not everyone who was accused during that time had a known residency; around 151 people, nearly half that were accused, were able to be traced back to twenty-five different New England communities.^[4] The grand juries and trials for this capital crime were conducted by a Court of Oyer and Terminer in 1692 and by a Superior Court of Judicature in 1693, both held in Salem Town, where the hangings also took place. It was the deadliest witch hunt in the history of colonial North America. Fourteen other women and two men were executed in Massachusetts and Connecticut during the 17th century.^[3] The Salem witch trials only came to an end when serious doubts began to arise among leading clergymen about the validity of the spectral evidence that had been used to justify so many of the convictions, and due to the sheer number of those accused, "including several prominent citizens of the colony".^[5]

In the years after the trials, "several of the accusers – mostly teen-age girls – admitted that they had fabricated their charges."^[5] In 1702, the General Court of Massachusetts declared the trials "unlawful",^[6] and in 1711 the Massachusetts legislature annulled the convictions, passing a bill "mentioning 22 individuals by name"^[6] and reversing their attainders.

The episode is one of colonial America's most notorious cases of mass hysteria. It was not unique, but a colonial manifestation of the much broader phenomenon of witch trials in the early modern period, which took the lives of tens of thousands in Europe. In America, Salem's events have been used in political rhetoric and popular literature as a vivid cautionary tale about the dangers of isolation, religious extremism, false accusations, and lapses in due process.^[7] Many historians consider the lasting effects of the trials to have been highly influential in the history of the United States. According to historian George Lincoln Burr, "the Salem witchcraft was the rock on which the [New England] theocracy shattered."^[8]

At the 300th anniversary events held in 1992 to commemorate the victims of the trials, a park was dedicated in Salem and a memorial in Danvers. In 1957, an act passed by the Massachusetts legislature absolved six people,^[9] while another one, passed in 2001, absolved five other victims.^[10] As of 2004, there was still talk about exonerating or pardoning all of the victims.^[11] In 2022, the last convicted Salem witch, Elizabeth Johnson Jr., was officially exonerated, 329 years after she had been found guilty.^[6]

In January 2016, the University of Virginia announced its Gallows Hill Project team had determined the execution site in Salem, where the 19 "witches" had been hanged. The city dedicated the Proctor's Ledge Memorial to the victims there in 2017.^[12][13]

1. ^ ^{a b} Baker, Emerson W. (July 7, 2016), "The Salem Witch Trials", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.324, ISBN 978-0-19-932917-5, retrieved April 27, 2025
2. ^ Snyder, Heather. "Giles Corey". Salem Witch Trials. Archived from the original on November 22, 2019. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
3. ^ ^{a b} Demos, John (1983). Entertaining Satan : Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 11, 401–409. ISBN 9780195033786.
4. ^ Latner, Richard (2008). "The Long and Short of Salem Witchcraft: Chronology and Collective Violence in 1692". Journal of Social History. 42 (1): 137–156. ISSN 0022-4529. JSTOR 25096601.
5. ^ ^{a b} Vaughan, Alden (1997). The Puritan Tradition in America. UP of New England. p. 283. ISBN 978-0874518528. Archived from the original on September 19, 2023. Retrieved November 13, 2020.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Katz, Brigit (August 3, 2022). "Last Convicted Salem 'Witch' Is Finally Cleared". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved October 12, 2024.
7. ^ Adams 2008
8. ^ Burr, George Lincoln, ed. (1914). Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases, 1648–1706. C. Scribner's Sons. p. 195n1.
9. ^ "Six Victims of 1692 Salem Witch Trials 'Cleared' by Massachusetts..." December 2, 2015. Archived from the original on January 18, 2018. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
10. ^ "Massachusetts Clears 5 From Salem Witch Trials". The New York Times. November 2, 2001. Archived from the original on January 30, 2018. Retrieved January 29, 2018.
11. ^ "Salem may pardon accused witches of 1692". archive.boston.com. The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on January 17, 2018. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
12. ^ Writer, Dustin Luca Staff (July 19, 2017). "On 325th anniversary, city dedicates Proctor's Ledge memorial to Salem Witch Trials victims". Salem News. Archived from the original on November 1, 2019. Retrieved November 1, 2019.
13. ^ Newman, Caroline (January 19, 2016). "With UVA's Help, Salem Finally Discovers Where Its 'Witches' Were Executed | UVA Today". news.virginia.edu. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2025.

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2 June 1692 – Bridget Bishop is the first person to be tried for witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts; she was found guilty and later hanged.

Salem witch trials

Legal proceedings in Massachusetts (1692–93)

For other uses, see Salem witch trials (disambiguation).

"Salem Witches" redirects here. For the minor league baseball team, see Salem Witches (baseball).

The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693. More than 200 people were accused.^[1] Thirty people were found guilty, nineteen of whom were executed by hanging (fourteen women and five men). One other man, Giles Corey, died under torture after refusing to enter a plea, and at least five people died in the disease-ridden jails.^[2][1]

Arrests were made in numerous towns beyond Salem Village (known today as Danvers) and its regional center Salem Town, notably in Andover and Topsfield.^[3] Not everyone who was accused during that time had a known residency; around 151 people, nearly half that were accused, were able to be traced back to twenty-five different New England communities.^[4] The grand juries and trials for this capital crime were conducted by a Court of Oyer and Terminer in 1692 and by a Superior Court of Judicature in 1693, both held in Salem Town, where the hangings also took place. It was the deadliest witch hunt in the history of colonial North America. Fourteen other women and two men were executed in Massachusetts and Connecticut during the 17th century.^[3] The Salem witch trials only came to an end when serious doubts began to arise among leading clergymen about the validity of the spectral evidence that had been used to justify so many of the convictions, and due to the sheer number of those accused, "including several prominent citizens of the colony".^[5]

In the years after the trials, "several of the accusers – mostly teen-age girls – admitted that they had fabricated their charges."^[5] In 1702, the General Court of Massachusetts declared the trials "unlawful",^[6] and in 1711 the Massachusetts legislature annulled the convictions, passing a bill "mentioning 22 individuals by name"^[6] and reversing their attainders.

The episode is one of colonial America's most notorious cases of mass hysteria. It was not unique, but a colonial manifestation of the much broader phenomenon of witch trials in the early modern period, which took the lives of tens of thousands in Europe. In America, Salem's events have been used in political rhetoric and popular literature as a vivid cautionary tale about the dangers of isolation, religious extremism, false accusations, and lapses in due process.^[7] Many historians consider the lasting effects of the trials to have been highly influential in the history of the United States. According to historian George Lincoln Burr, "the Salem witchcraft was the rock on which the [New England] theocracy shattered."^[8]

At the 300th anniversary events held in 1992 to commemorate the victims of the trials, a park was dedicated in Salem and a memorial in Danvers. In 1957, an act passed by the Massachusetts legislature absolved six people,^[9] while another one, passed in 2001, absolved five other victims.^[10] As of 2004, there was still talk about exonerating or pardoning all of the victims.^[11] In 2022, the last convicted Salem witch, Elizabeth Johnson Jr., was officially exonerated, 329 years after she had been found guilty.^[6]

In January 2016, the University of Virginia announced its Gallows Hill Project team had determined the execution site in Salem, where the 19 "witches" had been hanged. The city dedicated the Proctor's Ledge Memorial to the victims there in 2017.^[12][13]

1. ^ ^{a b} Baker, Emerson W. (July 7, 2016), "The Salem Witch Trials", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.324, ISBN 978-0-19-932917-5, retrieved April 27, 2025
2. ^ Snyder, Heather. "Giles Corey". Salem Witch Trials. Archived from the original on November 22, 2019. Retrieved December 3, 2019.
3. ^ ^{a b} Demos, John (1983). Entertaining Satan : Witchcraft and the Culture of Early New England. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 11, 401–409. ISBN 9780195033786.
4. ^ Latner, Richard (2008). "The Long and Short of Salem Witchcraft: Chronology and Collective Violence in 1692". Journal of Social History. 42 (1): 137–156. ISSN 0022-4529. JSTOR 25096601.
5. ^ ^{a b} Vaughan, Alden (1997). The Puritan Tradition in America. UP of New England. p. 283. ISBN 978-0874518528. Archived from the original on September 19, 2023. Retrieved November 13, 2020.
6. ^ ^{a b c} Katz, Brigit (August 3, 2022). "Last Convicted Salem 'Witch' Is Finally Cleared". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved October 12, 2024.
7. ^ Adams 2008
8. ^ Burr, George Lincoln, ed. (1914). Narratives of the Witchcraft Cases, 1648–1706. C. Scribner's Sons. p. 195n1.
9. ^ "Six Victims of 1692 Salem Witch Trials 'Cleared' by Massachusetts..." December 2, 2015. Archived from the original on January 18, 2018. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
10. ^ "Massachusetts Clears 5 From Salem Witch Trials". The New York Times. November 2, 2001. Archived from the original on January 30, 2018. Retrieved January 29, 2018.
11. ^ "Salem may pardon accused witches of 1692". archive.boston.com. The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on January 17, 2018. Retrieved January 17, 2018.
12. ^ Writer, Dustin Luca Staff (July 19, 2017). "On 325th anniversary, city dedicates Proctor's Ledge memorial to Salem Witch Trials victims". Salem News. Archived from the original on November 1, 2019. Retrieved November 1, 2019.
13. ^ Newman, Caroline (January 19, 2016). "With UVA's Help, Salem Finally Discovers Where Its 'Witches' Were Executed | UVA Today". news.virginia.edu. University of Virginia. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved January 31, 2025.

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3 June 2017 – London Bridge attack: Eight people are murdered and dozens of civilians are wounded by Islamist terrorists. Three of the attackers are shot dead by the police.

2017 London Bridge attack

Terror attack in London

This article is about the June 2017 attack in London. For the similar attack in March 2017 in Westminster, see 2017 Westminster attack. For other uses, see London Bridge attack.

On 3 June 2017, a terrorist vehicle-ramming and stabbing took place in London, England. A van was deliberately driven into pedestrians on London Bridge, and then crashed on Borough High Street, just south of the River Thames. The van's three occupants then ran to the nearby Borough Market area and began stabbing people in and around restaurants and pubs.^[8] They were shot dead by Metropolitan Police and City of London Police firearms officers, and were found to be wearing fake explosive vests.^[9]

Eight people were killed and 48 were injured, including members of the public and four unarmed police officers who attempted to stop the assailants. British authorities described the perpetrators as "radical Islamist terrorists".^[7] The Islamic State (ISIS) claimed responsibility for the attack.

1. ^ Mark Chandler (11 June 2017). "London Bridge killers' fake suicide belts revealed". Evening Standard. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
2. ^ "London terror attack: what we know so far". The Guardian. 5 June 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
3. ^ "Three Australians caught up in London Bridge attack, Julie Bishop says". The Guardian. 4 June 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
4. ^ "Attacker named as Khuram Butt". BBC. 5 June 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
5. ^ "Second London attacker was chef who lived in Dublin, say sources". The Guardian. 5 June 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
6. ^ "Third London Bridge attacker named". BBC. 6 June 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
7. ^ ^{a b} UK's Rudd says London attackers probably "radical Islamist terrorists", Reuters, 4 June
8. ^ "Isis claims responsibility for London terror attack". Independent.co.uk. 4 June 2017. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022.
9. ^ "London terror attack: who was Khuram Shazad Butt?". The Irish Times. Retrieved 18 December 2022.

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3 June 2017 – London Bridge attack: Eight people are murdered and dozens of civilians are wounded by Islamist terrorists. Three of the attackers are shot dead by the police.

2017 London Bridge attack

Terror attack in London

This article is about the June 2017 attack in London. For the similar attack in March 2017 in Westminster, see 2017 Westminster attack. For other uses, see London Bridge attack.

On 3 June 2017, a terrorist vehicle-ramming and stabbing took place in London, England. A van was deliberately driven into pedestrians on London Bridge, and then crashed on Borough High Street, just south of the River Thames. The van's three occupants then ran to the nearby Borough Market area and began stabbing people in and around restaurants and pubs.^[8] They were shot dead by Metropolitan Police and City of London Police firearms officers, and were found to be wearing fake explosive vests.^[9]

Eight people were killed and 48 were injured, including members of the public and four unarmed police officers who attempted to stop the assailants. British authorities described the perpetrators as "radical Islamist terrorists".^[7] The Islamic State (ISIS) claimed responsibility for the attack.

1. ^ Mark Chandler (11 June 2017). "London Bridge killers' fake suicide belts revealed". Evening Standard. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
2. ^ "London terror attack: what we know so far". The Guardian. 5 June 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
3. ^ "Three Australians caught up in London Bridge attack, Julie Bishop says". The Guardian. 4 June 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
4. ^ "Attacker named as Khuram Butt". BBC. 5 June 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
5. ^ "Second London attacker was chef who lived in Dublin, say sources". The Guardian. 5 June 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
6. ^ "Third London Bridge attacker named". BBC. 6 June 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
7. ^ ^{a b} UK's Rudd says London attackers probably "radical Islamist terrorists", Reuters, 4 June
8. ^ "Isis claims responsibility for London terror attack". Independent.co.uk. 4 June 2017. Archived from the original on 1 May 2022.
9. ^ "London terror attack: who was Khuram Shazad Butt?". The Irish Times. Retrieved 18 December 2022.

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4 June 1896 – Henry Ford completes the Ford Quadricycle, his first gasoline-powered automobile, and gives it a successful test run.

Ford Quadricycle

First automobile developed by American industrialist Henry Ford (1896)

Motor vehicle

The Ford Quadricycle was the first vehicle developed by Henry Ford. Ford's first car was a simple frame with a gas-powered engine mounted onto four bicycle wheels.^[3]

1. ^ Herndon, Ford: An Unconventional Biography of the Men and Their Times, (New York: Weybright & Talley, 1969), p. 62; also Flammang et al., Ford Chronicle, (Publications International, 1992), p. 9 (as cited in Brinkley, David, Wheels for the World: Henry Ford, His Company, and a Century of Progress, (New York: Penguin Group, 2003), p. 23
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Clymer was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference books.google.com was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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5 June 1997 – The Second Republic of the Congo Civil War begins.

Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997–1999)

Ethno-political conflict in the Republic of the Congo

For the 1998–2003 war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, see Second Congo War.

The Second Republic of the Congo Civil War, also known as the Second Brazzaville-Congolese Civil War, was the second of two ethnopolitical civil conflicts in the Republic of the Congo which lasted from 5 June 1997 to 29 December 1999. The war served as the continuation of the civil war of 1993–1994 and involved militias representing three political candidates. The conflict ended following the intervention of the Angolan military, which reinstated former president Denis Sassou Nguesso to power.

1. ^ ^{a b c d} Cite error: The named reference Last was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ ^{a b c d} Cite error: The named reference MuR was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Martin, Joseph (2019). "The Front(s) for the Liberation of Cabinda in Angola: A Phantom Insurgency". In de Vries, Lotje (ed.). Secessionism in African Politics. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 221. ISBN 978-3-319-90206-7. On the other side of the Congo River, the end of the civil war and the repossession of power by Sassou-Nguesso forced the FDC to dismantle its bases in Congo-Brazzaville, which meant losing the support of the Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS)'s militias of Pascal Lissouba. The FLEC-R, who had previously engaged with UNITA alongside the UPADS troops, was also summoned to leave the country.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Cook, Alethia (2017). Conflict Dynamics. University of Georgia Press. p. 61. Angola came to his aid with 2,500 troops in August 1997. Sassou also received help from Chad, Gabon, France, and Elf-Congo ... as well as Serbian mercenaries, the former Rwandan government forces, Rwandan Interahamwe militia and elements of Mobutu's Zairian army
5. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Rups was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "Congo". UCDP Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 12 April 2016. Retrieved 6 May 2015.

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6 June 1981 – Bihar train disaster: A passenger train travelling between Mansi and Saharsa, India, jumps the tracks at a bridge crossing the Bagmati River. The government places the official death toll at 268 plus another 300 missing; however, it is generally believed that the death toll is closer to 1,000.

Bihar train derailment

Indian train accident near badlaghat

In the Indian state of Bihar, on June 6, 1981, a passenger train carrying more than 800 passengers^[1] between Mansi (Dhamara Pul) and Saharsa, derailed while crossing a bridge and plunged into the river Bagmati.

After five days, more than 200 bodies were recovered, with hundreds more missing that were feared washed away by the river.^[1][2] Estimates of total deaths range from 500 to 800 or more.^[1] By the afternoon of June 12, the government had completed its recovery efforts and had issued an official death toll of 235 passengers, with 88 survivors. The death toll included three people whose bodies were not recovered.^[3]

The crash is the deadliest-ever rail accident in India.^[4]

1. ^ ^{a b c} Spignesi, Stephen J. (2004). Catastrophe!: the 100 greatest disasters of all time. Citadel Press. p. 182. ISBN 9780806525587.
2. ^ "AROUND THE WORLD; Toll From Train Crash Reaches 215 in India". New York Times. 9 June 2024. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
3. ^ "Diving Operations to Extricate Dead Bodies Completed – Samastipur Rail Disaster" (PDF). Press Information Bureau of India – Archive. 12 June 1981. Retrieved 25 March 2023.
4. ^ "1981 Bihar to 2023 Balasore train accident in Odisha, here are India's deadliest rail accidents". The Economic Times. 5 June 2024.

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7 June 1967 – Six-Day War: Israeli soldiers enter Jerusalem.

Six-Day War

1967 war between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, and Syria

For other uses, see Six Day War (disambiguation).

The Six-Day War,^[a] also known as the June war, 1967 Arab–Israeli war or third Arab–Israeli war, was fought between Israel and a coalition of Arab states, primarily Egypt, Syria, and Jordan from 5 to 10 June 1967.

Military hostilities broke out amid poor relations between Israel and its Arab neighbors, which had been observing the 1949 Armistice Agreements signed at the end of the First Arab–Israeli War. In 1956, regional tensions over the Straits of Tiran (giving access to Eilat, a port on the southeast tip of Israel) escalated in what became known as the Suez Crisis, when Israel invaded Egypt over the Egyptian closure of maritime passageways to Israeli shipping, ultimately resulting in the re-opening of the Straits of Tiran to Israel as well as the deployment of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) along the Egypt–Israel border.^[36] In the months prior to the outbreak of the Six-Day War in June 1967, tensions again became dangerously heightened: Israel reiterated its post-1956 position that another Egyptian closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping would be a definite casus belli. In May 1967, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser announced that the Straits of Tiran would again be closed to Israeli vessels. He subsequently mobilized the Egyptian military into defensive lines along the border with Israel^[37] and ordered the immediate withdrawal of all UNEF personnel.^[38][30]

On 5 June 1967, as the UNEF was in the process of leaving the zone, Israel launched a series of airstrikes against Egyptian airfields and other facilities in what is known as Operation Focus.^[30] Egyptian forces were caught by surprise, and nearly all of Egypt's military aerial assets were destroyed, giving Israel air supremacy. Simultaneously, the Israeli military launched a ground offensive into Egypt's Sinai Peninsula as well as the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip. After some initial resistance, Nasser ordered an evacuation of the Sinai Peninsula; by the sixth day of the conflict, Israel had occupied the entire Sinai Peninsula.^[39] Jordan, which had entered into a defense pact with Egypt just a week before the war began, did not take on an all-out offensive role against Israel, but launched attacks against Israeli forces to slow Israel's advance.^[40] On the fifth day, Syria joined the war by shelling Israeli positions in the north.^[41]

Egypt and Jordan agreed to a ceasefire on 8 June, and Syria on 9 June, and it was signed with Israel on 11 June. The Six-Day War resulted in more than 15,000 Arab fatalities, while Israel suffered fewer than 1,000. Alongside the combatant casualties were the deaths of 20 Israeli civilians killed in Arab forces air strikes on Jerusalem, 15 UN peacekeepers killed by Israeli strikes in the Sinai at the outset of the war, and 34 US personnel killed in the USS Liberty incident in which Israeli air forces struck a United States Navy technical research ship.

At the time of the cessation of hostilities, Israel had occupied the Golan Heights from Syria, the West Bank including East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt. The displacement of civilian populations as a result of the Six-Day War would have long-term consequences, as around 280,000 to 325,000 Palestinians and 100,000 Syrians fled or were expelled from the West Bank^[42] and the Golan Heights, respectively.^[43] Nasser resigned in shame after Israel's victory, but was later reinstated following a series of protests across Egypt. In the aftermath of the conflict, Egypt closed the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975.^[44]

1. ^ Krauthammer, Charles (18 May 2007). "Prelude to the Six Days". The Washington Post. p. A23. ISSN 0740-5421. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2008.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Oren (2002), p. 237.
3. ^ Arnold, Guy (2016). Wars in the Third World Since 1945. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 299. ISBN 9781474291019.
4. ^ "Milestones: 1961–1968". Office of the Historian. Archived from the original on 23 October 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2018. Between June 5 and June 10, Israel defeated Egypt, Jordan, and Syria and occupied the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights
5. ^ Weill, Sharon (2007). "The judicial arm of the occupation: the Israeli military courts in the occupied territories". International Review of the Red Cross. 89 (866): 401. doi:10.1017/s1816383107001142. ISSN 1816-3831. S2CID 55988443. On 7 June 1967, the day the occupation started, Military Proclamation No. 2 was issued, endowing the area commander with full legislative, executive, and judicial authorities over the West Bank and declaring that the law in force prior to the occupation remained in force as long as it did not contradict new military orders.
6. ^ Stone (2004), p. 217.
7. ^ Oren (2002), p. 171.
8. ^ Tucker (2015), pp. 540–541.
9. ^ ^{a b} Tucker (2004), p. 176.
10. ^ ^{a b c} Pollack (2004), p. 59.
11. ^ Oren (2002), p. 176.
12. ^ Morris (2001), p. 318.
13. ^ Ehteshami & Hinnebusch (1997), p. 76.
14. ^ Mutawi (2002), p. 42.
15. ^ ^{a b c} Segev (1967), pp. 82, 175–191.
16. ^ ^{a b} Herzog, Chaim (1 January 1984). The Arab-Israeli Wars: War and Peace in the Middle East from the War of Independence through Lebanon (Revised ed.). Vintage Books. p. 149. ISBN 978-0394717463.
17. ^ ^{a b c d} Gawrych (2000), p. 3.
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ Zaloga, Steven (1981). Armour of the Middle East Wars 1948–78 (Vanguard). Osprey Publishing.
20. ^ "מלחמת ששת-הימים". Israeli Air Force. 3 October 2010. Archived from the original on 12 June 2019.
21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Gammasy p.79 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
22. ^ Herzog (1982), p. 165.
23. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Israel Ministry 2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
24. ^ Tucker (2010), p. 1198.
25. ^ Woolf, Alex (2012). Arab–Israeli War Since 1948. Heinemann-Raintree. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-4329-6004-9.
26. ^ Sachar (2013), p. [1]^{[page needed]}
27. ^ Dunstan (2013a), p. [2]
28. ^ Warfare since the Second World War, By Klaus Jürgen Gantzel, Torsten Schwinghammer, p. 253
29. ^ Guy Arnold (1991) Wars in the Third World since 1945.^{[page needed][full citation needed]}
30. ^ ^{a b c} "UNEF I withdrawal (16 May - 17 June 1967) - SecGen report, addenda, corrigendum". Question of Palestine. Archived from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
31. ^ Oren (2002), p. 187: Over a thousand civilians were wounded, 150 seriously, 20 of them died.
32. ^ Gerhard, William D.; Millington, Henry W. (1981). "Attack on a SIGINT Collector, the USS Liberty" (PDF). NSA History Report, U.S. Cryptologic History series. National Security Agency. partially declassified 1999, 2003.
33. ^ Both USA and Israel officially attributed the USS Liberty incident as being due to mistaken identification.
34. ^ Cite error: The named reference ginor was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
35. ^ Jeremy Bowen (2003). Six Days: How the 1967 War Shaped the Middle East. Simon and Schuster, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4711-1475-5. UNRWA put the figure at 413,000
36. ^ Major General Indar Jit Rikhye (28 October 2013). The Sinai Blunder: Withdrawal of the United Nations Emergency Force Leading... Taylor & Francis. pp. 8–. ISBN 978-1-136-27985-0.
37. ^ Quigley (2013), p. 32.
38. ^ Mendoza, Terry; Hart, Rona; Herlitz, Lewis; Stone, John; Oboler, Andre (2007). "Six Day War Comprehensive Timeline". sixdaywar. Archived from the original on 18 May 2007. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
39. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC Panorama was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
40. ^ Mutawi (2002), p. 183: "It is clear that King Hussein joined forces with Egypt in the knowledge that there was no possibility of overrunning Israel. Instead, he sought to preserve the status quo. He believed that he could not stand aside at a time when Arab co-operation and solidarity were vital and he was convinced that any Arab confrontation with Israel would be greatly enhanced if the Arabs fought as a unified body. The plan of action devised at his meeting with Nasser in Cairo on 30 May was established on this basis. It was envisaged that Jordan would not take an offensive role but would tie down a proportion of Israel's forces and so prevent it from using its full weight against Egypt and Syria. By forcing Israel to fight a war on three fronts simultaneously King Hussein believed that the Arabs stood a chance of preventing it from making any territorial gains while allowing the Arabs a chance of gaining a political victory, which may, eventually, lead to peace. King Hussein was also convinced that even if Jordan did not participate in the war Israel would take the opportunity to seize the West Bank once it had dealt with Syria and Egypt. He decided that for this reason, the wisest course of action was to bring Jordan into the total Arab effort. This would provide his army with two elements that were essential for its efficient operation – additional troops and air cover. When King Hussein met Nasser in Cairo it was agreed that these requirements would be met."
41. ^ Dunstan (2013), p. 65.
42. ^ Bowker (2003), p. 81.
43. ^ McDowall (1991), p. 84: 116,000 had fled from the Golan further into Syria, ...
44. ^ "Suez Canal". 30 March 2021. Archived from the original on 8 September 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2022.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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7 June 1967 – Six-Day War: Israeli soldiers enter Jerusalem.

Six-Day War

1967 war between Israel and Egypt, Jordan, and Syria

For other uses, see Six Day War (disambiguation).

The Six-Day War,^[a] also known as the June war, 1967 Arab–Israeli war or third Arab–Israeli war, was fought between Israel and a coalition of Arab states, primarily Egypt, Syria, and Jordan from 5 to 10 June 1967.

Military hostilities broke out amid poor relations between Israel and its Arab neighbors, which had been observing the 1949 Armistice Agreements signed at the end of the First Arab–Israeli War. In 1956, regional tensions over the Straits of Tiran (giving access to Eilat, a port on the southeast tip of Israel) escalated in what became known as the Suez Crisis, when Israel invaded Egypt over the Egyptian closure of maritime passageways to Israeli shipping, ultimately resulting in the re-opening of the Straits of Tiran to Israel as well as the deployment of the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF) along the Egypt–Israel border.^[36] In the months prior to the outbreak of the Six-Day War in June 1967, tensions again became dangerously heightened: Israel reiterated its post-1956 position that another Egyptian closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping would be a definite casus belli. In May 1967, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser announced that the Straits of Tiran would again be closed to Israeli vessels. He subsequently mobilized the Egyptian military into defensive lines along the border with Israel^[37] and ordered the immediate withdrawal of all UNEF personnel.^[38][30]

On 5 June 1967, as the UNEF was in the process of leaving the zone, Israel launched a series of airstrikes against Egyptian airfields and other facilities in what is known as Operation Focus.^[30] Egyptian forces were caught by surprise, and nearly all of Egypt's military aerial assets were destroyed, giving Israel air supremacy. Simultaneously, the Israeli military launched a ground offensive into Egypt's Sinai Peninsula as well as the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip. After some initial resistance, Nasser ordered an evacuation of the Sinai Peninsula; by the sixth day of the conflict, Israel had occupied the entire Sinai Peninsula.^[39] Jordan, which had entered into a defense pact with Egypt just a week before the war began, did not take on an all-out offensive role against Israel, but launched attacks against Israeli forces to slow Israel's advance.^[40] On the fifth day, Syria joined the war by shelling Israeli positions in the north.^[41]

Egypt and Jordan agreed to a ceasefire on 8 June, and Syria on 9 June, and it was signed with Israel on 11 June. The Six-Day War resulted in more than 15,000 Arab fatalities, while Israel suffered fewer than 1,000. Alongside the combatant casualties were the deaths of 20 Israeli civilians killed in Arab forces air strikes on Jerusalem, 15 UN peacekeepers killed by Israeli strikes in the Sinai at the outset of the war, and 34 US personnel killed in the USS Liberty incident in which Israeli air forces struck a United States Navy technical research ship.

At the time of the cessation of hostilities, Israel had occupied the Golan Heights from Syria, the West Bank including East Jerusalem from Jordan, and the Sinai Peninsula and the Gaza Strip from Egypt. The displacement of civilian populations as a result of the Six-Day War would have long-term consequences, as around 280,000 to 325,000 Palestinians and 100,000 Syrians fled or were expelled from the West Bank^[42] and the Golan Heights, respectively.^[43] Nasser resigned in shame after Israel's victory, but was later reinstated following a series of protests across Egypt. In the aftermath of the conflict, Egypt closed the Suez Canal from 1967 to 1975.^[44]

1. ^ Krauthammer, Charles (18 May 2007). "Prelude to the Six Days". The Washington Post. p. A23. ISSN 0740-5421. Archived from the original on 24 July 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2008.
2. ^ ^{a b c} Oren (2002), p. 237.
3. ^ Arnold, Guy (2016). Wars in the Third World Since 1945. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 299. ISBN 9781474291019.
4. ^ "Milestones: 1961–1968". Office of the Historian. Archived from the original on 23 October 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2018. Between June 5 and June 10, Israel defeated Egypt, Jordan, and Syria and occupied the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights
5. ^ Weill, Sharon (2007). "The judicial arm of the occupation: the Israeli military courts in the occupied territories". International Review of the Red Cross. 89 (866): 401. doi:10.1017/s1816383107001142. ISSN 1816-3831. S2CID 55988443. On 7 June 1967, the day the occupation started, Military Proclamation No. 2 was issued, endowing the area commander with full legislative, executive, and judicial authorities over the West Bank and declaring that the law in force prior to the occupation remained in force as long as it did not contradict new military orders.
6. ^ Stone (2004), p. 217.
7. ^ Oren (2002), p. 171.
8. ^ Tucker (2015), pp. 540–541.
9. ^ ^{a b} Tucker (2004), p. 176.
10. ^ ^{a b c} Pollack (2004), p. 59.
11. ^ Oren (2002), p. 176.
12. ^ Morris (2001), p. 318.
13. ^ Ehteshami & Hinnebusch (1997), p. 76.
14. ^ Mutawi (2002), p. 42.
15. ^ ^{a b c} Segev (1967), pp. 82, 175–191.
16. ^ ^{a b} Herzog, Chaim (1 January 1984). The Arab-Israeli Wars: War and Peace in the Middle East from the War of Independence through Lebanon (Revised ed.). Vintage Books. p. 149. ISBN 978-0394717463.
17. ^ ^{a b c d} Gawrych (2000), p. 3.
18. ^ Cite error: The named reference Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
19. ^ Zaloga, Steven (1981). Armour of the Middle East Wars 1948–78 (Vanguard). Osprey Publishing.
20. ^ "מלחמת ששת-הימים". Israeli Air Force. 3 October 2010. Archived from the original on 12 June 2019.
21. ^ Cite error: The named reference Gammasy p.79 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
22. ^ Herzog (1982), p. 165.
23. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Israel Ministry 2004 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
24. ^ Tucker (2010), p. 1198.
25. ^ Woolf, Alex (2012). Arab–Israeli War Since 1948. Heinemann-Raintree. p. 27. ISBN 978-1-4329-6004-9.
26. ^ Sachar (2013), p. [1]^{[page needed]}
27. ^ Dunstan (2013a), p. [2]
28. ^ Warfare since the Second World War, By Klaus Jürgen Gantzel, Torsten Schwinghammer, p. 253
29. ^ Guy Arnold (1991) Wars in the Third World since 1945.^{[page needed][full citation needed]}
30. ^ ^{a b c} "UNEF I withdrawal (16 May - 17 June 1967) - SecGen report, addenda, corrigendum". Question of Palestine. Archived from the original on 11 July 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
31. ^ Oren (2002), p. 187: Over a thousand civilians were wounded, 150 seriously, 20 of them died.
32. ^ Gerhard, William D.; Millington, Henry W. (1981). "Attack on a SIGINT Collector, the USS Liberty" (PDF). NSA History Report, U.S. Cryptologic History series. National Security Agency. partially declassified 1999, 2003.
33. ^ Both USA and Israel officially attributed the USS Liberty incident as being due to mistaken identification.
34. ^ Cite error: The named reference ginor was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
35. ^ Jeremy Bowen (2003). Six Days: How the 1967 War Shaped the Middle East. Simon and Schuster, 2012. ISBN 978-1-4711-1475-5. UNRWA put the figure at 413,000
36. ^ Major General Indar Jit Rikhye (28 October 2013). The Sinai Blunder: Withdrawal of the United Nations Emergency Force Leading... Taylor & Francis. pp. 8–. ISBN 978-1-136-27985-0.
37. ^ Quigley (2013), p. 32.
38. ^ Mendoza, Terry; Hart, Rona; Herlitz, Lewis; Stone, John; Oboler, Andre (2007). "Six Day War Comprehensive Timeline". sixdaywar. Archived from the original on 18 May 2007. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
39. ^ Cite error: The named reference BBC Panorama was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
40. ^ Mutawi (2002), p. 183: "It is clear that King Hussein joined forces with Egypt in the knowledge that there was no possibility of overrunning Israel. Instead, he sought to preserve the status quo. He believed that he could not stand aside at a time when Arab co-operation and solidarity were vital and he was convinced that any Arab confrontation with Israel would be greatly enhanced if the Arabs fought as a unified body. The plan of action devised at his meeting with Nasser in Cairo on 30 May was established on this basis. It was envisaged that Jordan would not take an offensive role but would tie down a proportion of Israel's forces and so prevent it from using its full weight against Egypt and Syria. By forcing Israel to fight a war on three fronts simultaneously King Hussein believed that the Arabs stood a chance of preventing it from making any territorial gains while allowing the Arabs a chance of gaining a political victory, which may, eventually, lead to peace. King Hussein was also convinced that even if Jordan did not participate in the war Israel would take the opportunity to seize the West Bank once it had dealt with Syria and Egypt. He decided that for this reason, the wisest course of action was to bring Jordan into the total Arab effort. This would provide his army with two elements that were essential for its efficient operation – additional troops and air cover. When King Hussein met Nasser in Cairo it was agreed that these requirements would be met."
41. ^ Dunstan (2013), p. 65.
42. ^ Bowker (2003), p. 81.
43. ^ McDowall (1991), p. 84: 116,000 had fled from the Golan further into Syria, ...
44. ^ "Suez Canal". 30 March 2021. Archived from the original on 8 September 2023. Retrieved 27 August 2022.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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8 June 2014 – At least 28 people are killed in an attack at Jinnah International Airport, Karachi, Pakistan.

2014 Jinnah International Airport attack

Tehrik-i-Taliban attack in Sindh, Pakistan

24°54′24″N 67°09′39″E / 24.90667°N 67.16083°E / 24.90667; 67.16083

On 8 June 2014, 10 militants armed with automatic weapons, a rocket launcher, suicide vests, and grenades attacked Jinnah International Airport in Karachi, Pakistan. Thirty-six people were killed, including all 10 attackers, and 18 others were wounded.^[2] The militant organisation Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) initially claimed responsibility for the attack. According to state media, the attackers were foreigners of Uzbek origin who belonged to the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), an Al Qaeda-linked militant organisation that works closely with TTP.^[3][4] The TTP later confirmed that the attack was a joint operation they executed with the IMU, who independently admitted to having supplied personnel for the attack.^[5][6]

Following the attack, the Pakistani military conducted a series of aerial strikes on militant hideouts in the tribal areas along the Afghan border. At least 25 militants were killed on 10 June, including foreign fighters.^[7] Two drone attacks on 12 June also killed Uzbek, Afghan and some local militants.^[8] On 15 June, the Pakistani military intensified air strikes in North Waziristan, and bombed eight foreign militant hideouts. At least 105 insurgents were reported killed, a majority of whom were Uzbeks, including those linked to the airport attack.^[9][10] Some other foreign militants were also reported killed. According to military sources, a key Uzbek commander and mastermind of the attack, Abu Abdur Rehman Almani, was killed in the operation.^[11] These military responses culminated in Operation Zarb-e-Azb, a comprehensive Pakistan Armed Forces operation against militants in North Waziristan.^[12]

1. ^ "Pakistan: karachi airport training center attacked". Associated Press. 10 June 2014. Archived from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 10 June 2014.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference aje was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Drone strike in Pakistan days after airport attack, sources say. CNN.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference Reuters was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Uzbeks was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference Uzbeks2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Cite error: The named reference 25 militants was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
8. ^ Cite error: The named reference drone was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Cite error: The named reference 105 militants was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
10. ^ Cite error: The named reference 150 militants was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Almani was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ "Zarb-e-Azb operation: 120 suspected militants killed in N Waziristan – Pakistan". Dawn.Com. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014. Retrieved 3 August 2014.

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9 June 1959 – The USS George Washington is launched. It is the first nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarine.

USS George Washington (SSBN-598)

George Washington class submarine

For other ships with the same name, see USS George Washington.

USS George Washington (SSBN-598) (Ship, Submersible, Ballistic, Nuclear Powered) was the United States's first operational ballistic missile submarine. She was the lead ship of her class of nuclear ballistic missile submarines, was the third^[5] United States Navy ship of the name, in honor of Founding Father George Washington (1732–1799), the first president of the United States, and was the first of that name to be purpose-built as a warship.

1. ^ ^{a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q} "SSBN-598 George Washington-Class FBM Submarines" from the FAS
2. ^ Hickman, Kennedy (2012). "Cold War: USS George Washington (SSBN-598)". About.com. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 22 December 2012.
3. ^ Adcock, Al. U.S. Ballistic Missile Submarines (Carrolltown, Texas: Squadron Signal, 1993), p. 12. Adcock, p. 4, also credits mythical interwar Albacore and Trout classes, however.
4. ^ ^{a b c} Adcock, p. 12.
5. ^ Several other U.S. Navy ships have been named USS Washington in his honor.

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10 June 1838 – Myall Creek massacre: Twenty-eight Aboriginal Australians are murdered.

Myall Creek massacre

1838 killing of Indigenous people in New South Wales

"Myall Creek" redirects here. For the early Queensland settlement formerly known by this name, see Dalby, Queensland.

The Myall Creek massacre was the killing of at least 28 unarmed Aboriginal people in the Colony of New South Wales by eight colonists on 10 June 1838 at the Myall Creek in the north of the colony.^[1][2][3] Seven perpetrators were convicted of murder and hanged.

This was one of the few alleged massacres of Aboriginal people to have been proven in court and the only to result in the conviction and execution of any of the perpetrators. After two trials, seven perpetrators of twelve accused were found guilty of murder and sentenced to death by hanging. Four men were never retried on additional charges following their acquittal in the first trial. The leader of the perpetrators, free settler John Henry Fleming, evaded arrest and was never tried.^[2] The trials and guilty verdicts sparked extreme controversy within New South Wales settler society.^[1][4][5]

1. ^ ^{a b} "Myall Creek massacre". National Museum of Australia. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019. Retrieved 10 February 2019. The remains of at least 28 corpses were later observed at the site, but the final death toll has never been confirmed.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Myall Creek Massacre and Memorial Site". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. 25 June 2008. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013.
3. ^ Franks, Rachel (September 2017). "Terry Smyth, Denny Day: The Life and Times of Australia's Greatest Lawman". Dictionary of Sydney. Retrieved 26 July 2024.
4. ^ Rogers, Thomas James; Bain, Stephen (3 February 2016). "Genocide and frontier violence in Australia". Journal of Genocide Research. 18 (1): 83–100. doi:10.1080/14623528.2016.1120466. S2CID 147512803.
5. ^ Tedeschi, Mark (9 June 2023). "True heroes exposed the Myall Creek massacre. To our shame, we don't know their names". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 12 July 2023.

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11 June 2001 – Timothy McVeigh is executed for his role in the Oklahoma City bombing.

Timothy McVeigh

American domestic terrorist (1968–2001)

For the United States Navy sailor, see Timothy R. McVeigh.

"Robert Kling" redirects here. For the footballer, see Robert Kling (footballer).

Timothy James McVeigh (April 23, 1968 – June 11, 2001) was an American domestic terrorist who masterminded and perpetrated the Oklahoma City bombing on April 19, 1995.^[7][8] The bombing itself killed 167 people (including 19 children), injured 684 people, and destroyed one-third of the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building.^[9][10] A rescue worker was killed after the bombing when debris struck her head, bringing the total to 168 killed. It remains the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in U.S. history.^[11]

A Gulf War veteran, McVeigh became radicalized by anti-government beliefs. He sought revenge against the United States federal government for the 1993 Waco siege, as well as the 1992 Ruby Ridge incident. McVeigh expressed particular disapproval of federal agencies such as the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) for their handling of issues regarding private citizens. He hoped to inspire a revolution against the federal government, and he defended the bombing as a legitimate tactic against what he saw as a tyrannical government.^[12] He was arrested shortly after the bombing and indicted on 160 state offenses and 11 federal offenses, including the use of a weapon of mass destruction. He was found guilty on all counts in 1997 and sentenced to death.^[13]

McVeigh was executed by lethal injection on June 11, 2001, at the Federal Correctional Complex in Terre Haute, Indiana. His execution, which took place just over six years after the offense, was carried out in a considerably shorter time than for most inmates awaiting execution, due in part to his refusal to pursue appeals or stays of execution.^[14]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference McVeigh word essay was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "Oklahoma City Bombing".
3. ^ Shariat, Sheryll; Mallonee, Sue; Stidham, Shelli Stephens (December 1998). Oklahoma City Bombing Injuries (PDF) (Report). Injury Prevention Service, Oklahoma State Department of Health. pp. 2–3. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
4. ^ Shariat, Sheryll; Mallonee, Sue; Stidham, Shelli Stephens (December 1998). Oklahoma City Bombing Injuries (PDF) (Report). Injury Prevention Service, Oklahoma State Department of Health. pp. 2–3. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference washingtonpost was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference trutv7 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ Eatwell, Roger; Mudde, Cas, eds. (2004). Western Democracies and the New Extreme Right Challenge. Routledge Studies in Extremism and Democracy. London: Routledge. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-415-55387-2.
8. ^ Flowers, R. Barri; Flowers, H. Lorraine (2004). Murders in the United States: Crimes, Killers and Victims of the Twentieth Century. McFarland & Company. p. 106. ISBN 0-7864-2075-8.
9. ^ Mallonee, S.; Shariat, S.; Stennies, G.; Waxweiler, R.; Hogan, D.; Jordan, F. (August 7, 1996). "Physical Injuries and Fatalities Resulting From the Oklahoma City Bombing". JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association. 276 (5): 382–387. doi:10.1001/jama.1996.03540050042021. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 8683816.
10. ^ Shariat, Sheryll; Mallonee, Sue; Stidham, Shelli Stephens (December 1998). Oklahoma City Bombing Injuries (PDF) (Report). Injury Prevention Service, Oklahoma State Department of Health. pp. 2–3. Retrieved October 21, 2024.
11. ^ "Oklahoma City Bombing". Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved January 4, 2025. It was the worst act of homegrown terrorism in the nation's history.
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference mcveigh_dead was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Cite error: The named reference cnn 3-29-01 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
14. ^ "Time on Death Row". Death Penalty Information Center. Archived from the original on August 12, 2021. Retrieved August 13, 2021.

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12 June 1997 – Queen Elizabeth II reopens the Globe Theatre in London.

Globe Theatre

16th/17th-century theatre in London

This article is about the historic theatre. For the modern reconstruction, see Shakespeare's Globe. For other uses, see Globe Theatre (disambiguation).

The Globe Theatre was a theatre in London associated with William Shakespeare. It was built in 1599 at Southwark, close to the south bank of the Thames, by Shakespeare's playing company, the Lord Chamberlain's Men. It was destroyed by fire on 29 June 1613. A second Globe Theatre was built on the same site by June 1614 and stayed open until the London theatre closures of 1642. As well as plays by Shakespeare, early works by Ben Jonson, Thomas Dekker and John Fletcher were first performed here.^[1]

A modern reconstruction of the Globe, named "Shakespeare's Globe", opened in 1997 approximately 750 feet (230 m) from the site of the original theatre.^[2]

1. ^ "Fact Sheet: The First Globe". Teach Shakespeare. Shakespeare's Globe. 4 December 2015. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
2. ^ Measured using Google Earth

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13 June 2007 – The Al Askari Mosque is bombed for a second time.

2007 al-Askari mosque bombing

Formally unclaimed attack on a Shia Islamic mosque in the Iraqi city of Samarra

This article is about the 2007 bombing. For the 2006 bombing, see 2006 al-Askari Mosque bombing.

The 2007 al-Askari mosque bombing (Arabic: تفجير مسجد العسكري) occurred on 13 June 2007 at around 9 am local time at one of the holiest sites in Shia Islam, the al-Askari Mosque, and has been attributed by Iran to the Iraqi Baath Party. While there were no injuries or deaths reported, the mosque's two ten-story minarets were destroyed in the attacks. This was the second bombing of the mosque, with the first bombing occurring on 22 February 2006 and destroying the mosque's golden dome.

By April 2009, both minarets had been repaired.^[1]

1. ^ "Bombed Iraq shrine reopens to visitors". Archived from the original on 27 November 2010. Retrieved 20 April 2009.

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14 June 1940 – World War II: The German occupation of Paris begins.

Paris in World War II

Surrender of Paris

The city of Paris started mobilizing for war in September 1939, when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union attacked Poland, but the war seemed far away until May 10th 1940, when the Germans attacked France and quickly defeated the French army. The French government departed Paris on June 10th, and the Germans occupied the city on June 14th. During the occupation, the French government moved to Vichy, and Paris was governed by the German military and by French officials approved by the Germans. For Parisians, the occupation was a series of frustrations, shortages and humiliations. A curfew was in effect from nine in the evening until five in the morning; at night, the city went dark. Rationing of food, tobacco, coal and clothing was imposed from September 1940. Every year the supplies grew more scarce and the prices higher. A million Parisians left the city for the provinces, where there was more food and fewer Germans. The French press and radio contained only German propaganda.

Jews in Paris were forced to wear the yellow Star of David badge, and were barred from certain professions and public places. On July 16–17 1942, 13,152 Jews, including 4,115 children, were rounded up by the French police, on orders of the Germans, and were sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp. The first demonstration against the occupation, by Paris students, took place on November 11 1940. As the war continued, anti-German clandestine groups and networks were created, some loyal to the French Communist Party, others to General Charles de Gaulle in London. They wrote slogans on walls, organized an underground press, and sometimes attacked German officers. Reprisals by the Germans were swift and harsh.

Following the Allied invasion of Normandy on June 6 1944, the French Resistance in Paris launched an uprising on 19 August, seizing the police headquarters and other government buildings. The city was liberated by French and American troops on August 25th; the next day, General de Gaulle led a triumphant parade down the Champs-Élysées on August 26th, and organized a new government. In the following months, ten thousand Parisians who had collaborated with the Germans were arrested and tried, eight thousand convicted, and 116 executed. On April 29th and May 13th 1945, the first post-war municipal elections were held, in which French women voted for the first time.

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14 June 1940 – World War II: The German occupation of Paris begins.

Paris in World War II

Surrender of Paris

The city of Paris started mobilizing for war in September 1939, when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union attacked Poland, but the war seemed far away until May 10th 1940, when the Germans attacked France and quickly defeated the French army. The French government departed Paris on June 10th, and the Germans occupied the city on June 14th. During the occupation, the French government moved to Vichy, and Paris was governed by the German military and by French officials approved by the Germans. For Parisians, the occupation was a series of frustrations, shortages and humiliations. A curfew was in effect from nine in the evening until five in the morning; at night, the city went dark. Rationing of food, tobacco, coal and clothing was imposed from September 1940. Every year the supplies grew more scarce and the prices higher. A million Parisians left the city for the provinces, where there was more food and fewer Germans. The French press and radio contained only German propaganda.

Jews in Paris were forced to wear the yellow Star of David badge, and were barred from certain professions and public places. On July 16–17 1942, 13,152 Jews, including 4,115 children, were rounded up by the French police, on orders of the Germans, and were sent to the Auschwitz concentration camp. The first demonstration against the occupation, by Paris students, took place on November 11 1940. As the war continued, anti-German clandestine groups and networks were created, some loyal to the French Communist Party, others to General Charles de Gaulle in London. They wrote slogans on walls, organized an underground press, and sometimes attacked German officers. Reprisals by the Germans were swift and harsh.

Following the Allied invasion of Normandy on June 6 1944, the French Resistance in Paris launched an uprising on 19 August, seizing the police headquarters and other government buildings. The city was liberated by French and American troops on August 25th; the next day, General de Gaulle led a triumphant parade down the Champs-Élysées on August 26th, and organized a new government. In the following months, ten thousand Parisians who had collaborated with the Germans were arrested and tried, eight thousand convicted, and 116 executed. On April 29th and May 13th 1945, the first post-war municipal elections were held, in which French women voted for the first time.

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15 June 1896 – The deadliest tsunami in Japan's history kills more than 22,000 people.

1896 Sanriku earthquake

Japanese tsunami earthquake

Not to be confused with 1896 Rikuu earthquake.

The 1896 Sanriku earthquake (明治三陸地震, Meiji Sanriku Jishin) was one of the most destructive seismic events in Japanese history.^[3] The 8.5 magnitude earthquake occurred at 19:32 (local time) on June 15, 1896, approximately 166 kilometres (103 mi) off the coast of Iwate Prefecture, Honshu. It resulted in two tsunami waves which destroyed about 9,000 homes and caused at least 22,000 deaths.^[4] The waves reached a then-record height of 38.2 metres (125 ft); this would remain the highest on record until waves from the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake exceeded that height by more than 2 metres (6 ft 7 in).^[5]

From the tsunami records the estimated tsunami's magnitude is (M_t = 8.2),^[6] much greater than expected for the seismic magnitude estimated from the observed seismic intensity (M_s=7.2).^[2] This earthquake is now regarded as being part of a distinct class of seismic events, the tsunami earthquake.^[7]

1. ^ Nishimura, T.; Miura S.; Tachibana K.; Hashimoto K.; Sato T.; Hori S.; Murakami E.; Kono T.; Nid K.; Mishina M.; Hirasawa T. & Miyazaki S. (2000). "Distribution of seismic coupling on the subducting plate boundary in northeastern Japan inferred from GPS observations". Tectonophysics. 323 (3–4): 217–238. Bibcode:2000Tectp.323..217N. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00108-6.
2. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Tanioka was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Nakao was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference USGS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ "March 11th tsunami a record 40.5 metres high NHK". .nhk.or.jp. 13 August 2011. Archived from the original on 28 July 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2018.
6. ^ Abe, K. (1981). "Physical size of tsunamigenic earthquakes of the northwestern Pacific". Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 27 (3): 194–205. Bibcode:1981PEPI...27..194A. doi:10.1016/0031-9201(81)90016-9.
7. ^ Kanamori, H. (1972). "Mechanism of tsunami earthquakes" (PDF). Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 6 (5): 346–359. Bibcode:1972PEPI....6..346K. doi:10.1016/0031-9201(72)90058-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-14.

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16 June 2010 – Bhutan becomes the first country to institute a total ban on tobacco.

Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan 2010

2010 Bhutanese law banning all production and selling of tobacco and its products

"Tobacco Control Act" redirects here. For the 2009 American law, see Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act.

The Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan (Dzongkha: འབྲུག་གི་ཏམ་ཁུ་དམ་འཛིན་བཅའ་ཁྲིམས་ཅན་མ་, romanized: 'Drug-gi tam-khu dam-'dzin bca'-khrims can-ma) was enacted by the Parliament of Bhutan on 6 June 2010 and came into force on 16 June.^{[1][nb 1]} It regulates tobacco and tobacco products, banning the cultivation, harvesting, production, and sale of tobacco and tobacco products in Bhutan. The act also mandates that the government of Bhutan provide counselling and treatment to facilitate tobacco cessation. Premised on the physical health and well being of the Bhutanese people – important elements of Gross National Happiness – the Tobacco Control Act recognizes the harmful effects of tobacco consumption and exposure to tobacco smoke on both spiritual and social health.^{[nb 2]}

Long before the enactment of the Tobacco Control Act, Bhutan's government had struggled against tobacco use. In 1916, the first King of Bhutan Ugyen Wangchuck promulgated a ban on the "most filthy and noxious herb, called tobacco."^[2] The modern Tobacco Control Act, however, led to controversy because of its harsh penalties. In January 2012, Parliament passed urgent amendments with the effect of greatly increasing permissible amounts of tobacco and reducing penalties, although sale and distribution remain prohibited.

1. ^ "Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan, 2010" (PDF). Government of Bhutan. 2010-06-16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-16. Retrieved 2011-01-20.
2. ^ White, J. Claude (1909). "Appendix I – The Laws of Bhutan". Sikhim & Bhutan: Twenty-One Years on the North-East Frontier, 1887–1908. New York: Longmans, Green & Co. pp. 301–10. ISBN 978-0-598-73927-8. Retrieved 2010-12-25. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)

Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

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17 June 1944 – Iceland declares independence from Denmark and becomes a republic.

Icelandic National Day

National holiday in Iceland commemorating independence from Denmark (17 June 1944)

Not to be confused with Þjóðhátíð.

Icelandic National Day (Icelandic: Þjóðhátíðardagurinn, the day of the nation's celebration) is an annual holiday in Iceland which commemorates the foundation of The Republic of Iceland on 17 June 1944. This date also marks the end of Iceland's centuries-old ties with Denmark.^[1] The date was chosen to coincide with the birthday of Jón Sigurðsson, a major figure of Icelandic culture and the leader of the 19th-century Icelandic independence movement.^[2]

1. ^ "Icelandic National Day: A Profile in Pictures | Britannica Blog". www.britannica.com. Archived from the original on 2011-06-20.
2. ^ Today is the Icelandic National Day Archived 2013-06-21 at the Wayback Machine Icelandic Review 6/17/2013

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18 June 1940 – The "Finest Hour" speech is delivered by Winston Churchill.

This was their finest hour

1940 speech by Winston Churchill

"This was their finest hour" was a speech delivered by Winston Churchill to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom on 18 June 1940, just over a month after he took over as Prime Minister at the head of an all-party coalition government.

It was the third of three speeches which he gave during the period of the Battle of France, after the "Blood, toil, tears and sweat" speech of 13 May and the "We shall fight on the beaches" speech of 4 June.^[1][2] "This was their finest hour" was made after France had sought an armistice on the evening of 16 June.^[a]

1. ^ Hansard debate, 13 May 1940 "His Majesty's Government"
2. ^ The Churchill Centre: We Shall Fight on the Beaches
3. ^ BBC Written Archives quoted in Gilbert, Martin (27 June 1983). Finest Hour: Winston S. Churchill 1939–1941. Heinemann. p. 566. ISBN 978-0434291878.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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19 June 1964 – The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is approved after surviving an 83-day filibuster in the United States Senate.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Landmark U.S. civil rights and labor law

This article is about the 1964 Civil Rights Act. For other American laws called the Civil Rights Acts, see Civil Rights Act.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88–352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex,^[a] and national origin.^[4] It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools and public accommodations, and employment discrimination. The act "remains one of the most significant legislative achievements in American history".^[5]

Initially, powers given to enforce the act were weak, but these were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its enumerated power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause of Article I, Section 8, its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the 14th Amendment, and its duty to protect voting rights under the 15th Amendment.

The legislation was proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but it was opposed by filibuster in the Senate. After Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward. The United States House of Representatives passed the bill on February 10, 1964, and after a 72-day filibuster, it passed the United States Senate on June 19, 1964. The final vote was 290–130 in the House of Representatives and 73–27 in the Senate.^[6] After the House agreed to a subsequent Senate amendment, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed into law by President Johnson at the White House on July 2, 1964.

1. ^ "H.R. 7152. Passage". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
2. ^ "HR. 7152. Passage". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved November 30, 2013.
3. ^ "H.R. 7152. Civil Rights Act of 1964. Adoption of a Resolution (H. RES. 789) Providing for House Approval of the Bill As Amended by the Senate". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on September 10, 2019. Retrieved November 30, 2013.
4. ^ "Transcript of Civil Rights Act (1964)" Archived April 18, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
5. ^ "U.S. Senate: Landmark Legislation: The Civil Rights Act of 1964". www.senate.gov. Archived from the original on April 16, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
6. ^ "HR. 7152. Passage. Senate Vote #409 – Jun 19, 1964". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved November 30, 2013.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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19 June 1964 – The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is approved after surviving an 83-day filibuster in the United States Senate.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Landmark U.S. civil rights and labor law

This article is about the 1964 Civil Rights Act. For other American laws called the Civil Rights Acts, see Civil Rights Act.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88–352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex,^[a] and national origin.^[4] It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools and public accommodations, and employment discrimination. The act "remains one of the most significant legislative achievements in American history".^[5]

Initially, powers given to enforce the act were weak, but these were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its enumerated power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause of Article I, Section 8, its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the 14th Amendment, and its duty to protect voting rights under the 15th Amendment.

The legislation was proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but it was opposed by filibuster in the Senate. After Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward. The United States House of Representatives passed the bill on February 10, 1964, and after a 72-day filibuster, it passed the United States Senate on June 19, 1964. The final vote was 290–130 in the House of Representatives and 73–27 in the Senate.^[6] After the House agreed to a subsequent Senate amendment, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed into law by President Johnson at the White House on July 2, 1964.

1. ^ "H.R. 7152. Passage". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
2. ^ "HR. 7152. Passage". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved November 30, 2013.
3. ^ "H.R. 7152. Civil Rights Act of 1964. Adoption of a Resolution (H. RES. 789) Providing for House Approval of the Bill As Amended by the Senate". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on September 10, 2019. Retrieved November 30, 2013.
4. ^ "Transcript of Civil Rights Act (1964)" Archived April 18, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
5. ^ "U.S. Senate: Landmark Legislation: The Civil Rights Act of 1964". www.senate.gov. Archived from the original on April 16, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
6. ^ "HR. 7152. Passage. Senate Vote #409 – Jun 19, 1964". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved November 30, 2013.

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20 June 1975 – The film Jaws is released in the United States, becoming the highest-grossing film of that time and starting the trend of films known as "summer blockbusters".

Jaws (film)

1975 thriller film by Steven Spielberg

Jaws is a 1975 American thriller film directed by Steven Spielberg. Based on the 1974 novel by Peter Benchley, it stars Roy Scheider as police chief Martin Brody, who, with the help of a marine biologist (Richard Dreyfuss) and a professional shark hunter (Robert Shaw), hunts a man-eating great white shark that attacks beachgoers at a New England summer resort town. Murray Hamilton plays the mayor, and Lorraine Gary portrays Brody's wife. The screenplay is credited to Benchley, who wrote the first drafts, and actor-writer Carl Gottlieb, who rewrote the script during principal photography.

Shot mostly on location at Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts from May to October 1974, Jaws was the first major motion picture to be shot on the ocean and consequently had a troubled production, going over budget and schedule. As the art department's mechanical sharks often malfunctioned, Spielberg decided to mostly suggest the shark's presence, employing an ominous and minimalist theme created by composer John Williams to indicate its impending appearances. Spielberg and others have compared this suggestive approach to that of director Alfred Hitchcock. Universal Pictures released the film to over 450 screens, an exceptionally wide release for a major studio picture at the time, accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign with heavy emphasis on television spots and tie-in merchandise.

Regarded as a watershed moment in motion picture history, Jaws was the prototypical summer blockbuster and won several awards for its music and editing. It was the highest-grossing film in history until the release of Star Wars two years later; both films were pivotal in establishing the modern Hollywood business model, which pursues high box-office returns from action and adventure films with simple high-concept premises, released during the summer in thousands of theaters and advertised heavily. Jaws was followed by three sequels, none of which involved Spielberg or Benchley, as well as many imitative thrillers. In 2001, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Jaws (1975)". AFI Catalog of Feature Films. Archived from the original on March 26, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2018.
2. ^ "JAWS (A)". British Board of Film Classification. June 12, 1975. Archived from the original on January 30, 2016. Retrieved June 22, 2021.

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21 June 1963 – Cardinal Giovanni Battista Montini is elected as Pope Paul VI.

Pope Paul VI

Head of the Catholic Church from 1963 to 1978

Pope Paul VI^[a] (born Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini;^[b] 26 September 1897 – 6 August 1978) was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 21 June 1963 until his death on 6 August 1978. Succeeding John XXIII, he continued the Second Vatican Council, which he closed in 1965, implementing its numerous reforms. He fostered improved ecumenical relations with Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches, which resulted in many historic meetings and agreements. In January 1964, he flew to Jordan, the first time a reigning pontiff had left Italy in more than a century.^[8]

Montini served in the Holy See's Secretariat of State from 1922 to 1954, and along with Domenico Tardini was considered the closest and most influential advisor of Pope Pius XII. In 1954, Pius named Montini Archbishop of Milan, the largest Italian diocese. Montini later became the Secretary of the Italian Bishops' Conference. John XXIII elevated Montini to the College of Cardinals in 1958, and after his death, Montini was, with little to no opposition, elected his successor, taking the name Paul VI.^[9]

He reconvened the Second Vatican Council, which had been suspended during the interregnum. After its conclusion, Paul VI took charge of the interpretation and implementation of its mandates, finely balancing the conflicting expectations of various Catholic groups. The resulting reforms were among the widest and deepest in the Church's history.

Paul VI spoke repeatedly to Marian conventions and Mariological meetings, visited Marian shrines and issued three Marian encyclicals. Following Ambrose of Milan, he named Mary as the Mother of the Church during the Second Vatican Council.^[10] He described himself as a humble servant of a suffering humanity and demanded significant changes from the rich in North America and Europe in favour of the poor in the Third World.^[11] His opposition to birth control was published in the 1968 encyclical Humanae vitae.

Pope Benedict XVI, citing his heroic virtue, proclaimed him venerable on 20 December 2012. Pope Francis beatified Paul VI on 19 October 2014, after the recognition of a miracle attributed to his intercession. His liturgical feast was celebrated on the date of his birth, 26 September, until 2019 when it was changed to the date of his priestly ordination, 29 May.^[1] Pope Francis canonised him on 14 October 2018. Paul VI is the most recent pope to take the pontifical name "Paul".

1. ^ ^{a b} "Decreto della Congregazione del Culto Divino e la Disciplina dei Sacramenti sull'iscrizione della celebrazione di San Paolo VI, Papa, nel calendario Romano Generale". Holy See. 6 February 2019. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
2. ^ "Memory of Blessd Paul VI". Archdiocese of Milan. 15 May 2015. Archived from the original on 24 May 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
3. ^ "In the Diocese of Milan. A pastoral community dedicated to Paul VI (in Italian)". 1 October 2014. Archived from the original on 18 August 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
4. ^ "About Paul VI, Patron of the Institute". Archdiocese of St. Louis. Archived from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
5. ^ "Paul VI Blessed! (in Italian)". Diocese of Brescia. 2014. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
6. ^ "Letter to the diocese for calling a "Montinian Year" (in Italian)" (PDF). Diocese of Brescia. 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
7. ^ "CAPOVILLA, Loris Francesco (1915–)". Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church. Archived from the original on 30 December 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
8. ^ "The Pilgrimage of Pope Paul the Sixth". Life. 17 January 1964. pp. 18–29. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2011.
9. ^ Hebblethwaite 1993, pp. 322–23.
10. ^ Commissio Theologica Internationalis, Catholic Church (21 August 2009). Sharkey, Michael; Weinandy, Thomas (eds.). International Theological Commission, Vol II: 1986–2007. Ignatius Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-1586172268.
11. ^ 'It's not Easy Being a Christian', says Pope, Rome, Italy: Vatican Radio, 11 August 2009, archived from the original on 7 March 2012, retrieved 19 May 2014

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21 June 1963 – Cardinal Giovanni Battista Montini is elected as Pope Paul VI.

Pope Paul VI

Head of the Catholic Church from 1963 to 1978

Pope Paul VI^[a] (born Giovanni Battista Enrico Antonio Maria Montini;^[b] 26 September 1897 – 6 August 1978) was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 21 June 1963 until his death on 6 August 1978. Succeeding John XXIII, he continued the Second Vatican Council, which he closed in 1965, implementing its numerous reforms. He fostered improved ecumenical relations with Eastern Orthodox and Protestant churches, which resulted in many historic meetings and agreements. In January 1964, he flew to Jordan, the first time a reigning pontiff had left Italy in more than a century.^[8]

Montini served in the Holy See's Secretariat of State from 1922 to 1954, and along with Domenico Tardini was considered the closest and most influential advisor of Pope Pius XII. In 1954, Pius named Montini Archbishop of Milan, the largest Italian diocese. Montini later became the Secretary of the Italian Bishops' Conference. John XXIII elevated Montini to the College of Cardinals in 1958, and after his death, Montini was, with little to no opposition, elected his successor, taking the name Paul VI.^[9]

He reconvened the Second Vatican Council, which had been suspended during the interregnum. After its conclusion, Paul VI took charge of the interpretation and implementation of its mandates, finely balancing the conflicting expectations of various Catholic groups. The resulting reforms were among the widest and deepest in the Church's history.

Paul VI spoke repeatedly to Marian conventions and Mariological meetings, visited Marian shrines and issued three Marian encyclicals. Following Ambrose of Milan, he named Mary as the Mother of the Church during the Second Vatican Council.^[10] He described himself as a humble servant of a suffering humanity and demanded significant changes from the rich in North America and Europe in favour of the poor in the Third World.^[11] His opposition to birth control was published in the 1968 encyclical Humanae vitae.

Pope Benedict XVI, citing his heroic virtue, proclaimed him venerable on 20 December 2012. Pope Francis beatified Paul VI on 19 October 2014, after the recognition of a miracle attributed to his intercession. His liturgical feast was celebrated on the date of his birth, 26 September, until 2019 when it was changed to the date of his priestly ordination, 29 May.^[1] Pope Francis canonised him on 14 October 2018. Paul VI is the most recent pope to take the pontifical name "Paul".

1. ^ ^{a b} "Decreto della Congregazione del Culto Divino e la Disciplina dei Sacramenti sull'iscrizione della celebrazione di San Paolo VI, Papa, nel calendario Romano Generale". Holy See. 6 February 2019. Archived from the original on 7 February 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2019.
2. ^ "Memory of Blessd Paul VI". Archdiocese of Milan. 15 May 2015. Archived from the original on 24 May 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2015.
3. ^ "In the Diocese of Milan. A pastoral community dedicated to Paul VI (in Italian)". 1 October 2014. Archived from the original on 18 August 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
4. ^ "About Paul VI, Patron of the Institute". Archdiocese of St. Louis. Archived from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
5. ^ "Paul VI Blessed! (in Italian)". Diocese of Brescia. 2014. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
6. ^ "Letter to the diocese for calling a "Montinian Year" (in Italian)" (PDF). Diocese of Brescia. 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 June 2016. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
7. ^ "CAPOVILLA, Loris Francesco (1915–)". Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church. Archived from the original on 30 December 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
8. ^ "The Pilgrimage of Pope Paul the Sixth". Life. 17 January 1964. pp. 18–29. Archived from the original on 29 April 2024. Retrieved 18 January 2011.
9. ^ Hebblethwaite 1993, pp. 322–23.
10. ^ Commissio Theologica Internationalis, Catholic Church (21 August 2009). Sharkey, Michael; Weinandy, Thomas (eds.). International Theological Commission, Vol II: 1986–2007. Ignatius Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-1586172268.
11. ^ 'It's not Easy Being a Christian', says Pope, Rome, Italy: Vatican Radio, 11 August 2009, archived from the original on 7 March 2012, retrieved 19 May 2014

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22 June 1990 – Cold War: Checkpoint Charlie is dismantled in Berlin.

Checkpoint Charlie

Well-known crossing point in the Berlin Wall; now a museum

A view of Checkpoint Charlie in 1963, from the American sector

Map of Berlin Wall with location of Checkpoint Charlie

Checkpoint Charlie (or "Checkpoint C") was the Western Bloc's name for the best-known Berlin Wall crossing point between East Berlin and West Berlin during the Cold War (1947–1991),^[1] becoming a symbol of the Cold War, representing the separation of East and West.

East German leader Walter Ulbricht agitated and maneuvered to get the Soviet Union's permission to construct the Berlin Wall in 1961 to prevent brain drain, emigration and defection from East Berlin and the wider German Democratic Republic into West Berlin.^[2]

Soviet and American tanks briefly faced each other at the location during the Berlin Crisis of 1961. On 26 June 1963, U.S. President John F. Kennedy visited Checkpoint Charlie and looked from a platform onto the Berlin Wall and into East Berlin, the same day he gave his famous Ich bin ein Berliner speech.^[3]

After the dissolution of the Eastern Bloc and the reunification of Germany, the American guard house at Checkpoint Charlie became a tourist attraction. It is now located in the Allied Museum in the Dahlem neighborhood of Berlin.52°30′27″N 13°23′25″E / 52.50750°N 13.39028°E / 52.50750; 13.39028

1. ^ "A brief history of Checkpoint Charlie". Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 19 March 2022.
2. ^ Thackeray 2004, p. 188
3. ^ Andreas Daum, Kennedy in Berlin. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 134‒35.

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23 June 2016 – The United Kingdom votes in a referendum to leave the European Union, by 52% to 48%.

[URL]https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum[/URL]

 

24 June 1982 – "The Jakarta Incident": British Airways Flight 9 flies into a cloud of volcanic ash thrown up by the eruption of Mount Galunggung, resulting in the failure of all four engines.

British Airways Flight 9

Redirect to:

• British Airways Flight 009

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25 June 1948 – Cold War: The Berlin airlift begins

Berlin Blockade

USSR blockade of Berlin, 1948–1949

"Operation Vittles" redirects here. For the 1948 American short documentary film, see Operation Vittles (film).

The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche Mark from West Berlin.

The Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift (German: Berliner Luftbrücke, lit. "Berlin Air Bridge") from 26 June 1948 to 30 September 1949 to carry supplies to the people of West Berlin, a difficult feat given the size of the city and the population.^[1][2] American and British air forces flew over Berlin more than 250,000 times, dropping necessities such as fuel and food, with the original plan being to lift 3,475 tons^{[clarification needed]} of supplies daily.^{[citation needed]} By the spring of 1949, that number was often met twofold, with the peak daily delivery totalling 12,941 tons.^[3] Among these was the work of the later concurrent Operation Little Vittles in which candy-dropping aircraft dubbed "raisin bombers" generated much goodwill among German children.^[4]

Having initially concluded there was no way the airlift could work, the Soviets found its continued success an increasing embarrassment.^{[citation needed]} On 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin, due to economic issues in East Berlin, although for a time the Americans and British continued to supply the city by air as they were worried that the Soviets would resume the blockade and were only trying to disrupt Western supply lines. The Berlin Airlift officially ended on 30 September 1949 after fifteen months. The US Air Force had delivered 1,783,573 tons (76.4% of total) and the RAF 541,937 tons (23.3% of total),^{[nb 1]} totalling 2,334,374 tons, nearly two-thirds of which was coal, on 278,228 flights to Berlin. In addition Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African air crews assisted the RAF during the blockade.^[5]: 338 The French also conducted flights, but only to provide supplies for their military garrison.^[6]

American C-47 and C-54 transport airplanes, together, flew over 92,000,000 miles (148,000,000 km) in the process, almost the distance from Earth to the Sun.^[7] British transports, including Handley Page Haltons and Short Sunderlands, flew as well. At the height of the airlift, one plane reached West Berlin every thirty seconds.^[8]

Seventeen American and eight British aircraft crashed during the operation.^[9] A total of 101 fatalities were recorded as a result of the operation, including 40 Britons and 31 Americans,^[8] mostly due to non-flying accidents.

The Berlin Blockade served to highlight the competing ideological and economic visions for postwar Europe. It played a major role in aligning West Berlin with the United States and Britain as the major protecting powers,^[10] and in drawing West Germany into the NATO orbit several years later in 1955.

1. ^ Journey Across Berlin (1961). Universal Newsreel. 1957. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
2. ^ Air Force Story, The Cold War, 1948–1950 (1953). Universal Newsreel. 1953. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
3. ^ The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. p. 828.
4. ^ Smoler, Fredric (April/May 2003). "Where Berlin and America Meet Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine" American Heritage. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
5. ^ "5 – National Security". South Africa: a country study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 1997. ISBN 0-8444-0796-8.
6. ^ Jacques Bariéty (1994). "La France et la crise internationale du blocus de Berlin". Histoire, Économie et Société. 13 (1): 29–44. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
7. ^ Berlin Airlift: Logistics, Humanitarian Aid, and Strategic Success Archived 16 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Major Gregory C. Tine, Army Logistician
8. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference turner27 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Tunner 1964, p. 218
10. ^ Daum, Andreas W. (2000). "America's Berlin, 1945‒2000: Between Myths and Visions". In Trommler, Frank (ed.). Berlin: The New Capital in the East (PDF). The American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Johns Hopkins University. pp. 49–73. Retrieved 2 March 2021.

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25 June 1948 – Cold War: The Berlin airlift begins

Berlin Blockade

USSR blockade of Berlin, 1948–1949

"Operation Vittles" redirects here. For the 1948 American short documentary film, see Operation Vittles (film).

The Berlin Blockade (24 June 1948 – 12 May 1949) was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War. During the multinational occupation of post–World War II Germany, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway, road, and canal access to the sectors of Berlin under Western control. The Soviets offered to drop the blockade if the Western Allies withdrew the newly introduced Deutsche Mark from West Berlin.

The Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift (German: Berliner Luftbrücke, lit. "Berlin Air Bridge") from 26 June 1948 to 30 September 1949 to carry supplies to the people of West Berlin, a difficult feat given the size of the city and the population.^[1][2] American and British air forces flew over Berlin more than 250,000 times, dropping necessities such as fuel and food, with the original plan being to lift 3,475 tons^{[clarification needed]} of supplies daily.^{[citation needed]} By the spring of 1949, that number was often met twofold, with the peak daily delivery totalling 12,941 tons.^[3] Among these was the work of the later concurrent Operation Little Vittles in which candy-dropping aircraft dubbed "raisin bombers" generated much goodwill among German children.^[4]

Having initially concluded there was no way the airlift could work, the Soviets found its continued success an increasing embarrassment.^{[citation needed]} On 12 May 1949, the USSR lifted the blockade of West Berlin, due to economic issues in East Berlin, although for a time the Americans and British continued to supply the city by air as they were worried that the Soviets would resume the blockade and were only trying to disrupt Western supply lines. The Berlin Airlift officially ended on 30 September 1949 after fifteen months. The US Air Force had delivered 1,783,573 tons (76.4% of total) and the RAF 541,937 tons (23.3% of total),^{[nb 1]} totalling 2,334,374 tons, nearly two-thirds of which was coal, on 278,228 flights to Berlin. In addition Canadian, Australian, New Zealand and South African air crews assisted the RAF during the blockade.^[5]: 338 The French also conducted flights, but only to provide supplies for their military garrison.^[6]

American C-47 and C-54 transport airplanes, together, flew over 92,000,000 miles (148,000,000 km) in the process, almost the distance from Earth to the Sun.^[7] British transports, including Handley Page Haltons and Short Sunderlands, flew as well. At the height of the airlift, one plane reached West Berlin every thirty seconds.^[8]

Seventeen American and eight British aircraft crashed during the operation.^[9] A total of 101 fatalities were recorded as a result of the operation, including 40 Britons and 31 Americans,^[8] mostly due to non-flying accidents.

The Berlin Blockade served to highlight the competing ideological and economic visions for postwar Europe. It played a major role in aligning West Berlin with the United States and Britain as the major protecting powers,^[10] and in drawing West Germany into the NATO orbit several years later in 1955.

1. ^ Journey Across Berlin (1961). Universal Newsreel. 1957. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
2. ^ Air Force Story, The Cold War, 1948–1950 (1953). Universal Newsreel. 1953. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
3. ^ The American People: Creating a Nation and a Society. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. p. 828.
4. ^ Smoler, Fredric (April/May 2003). "Where Berlin and America Meet Archived 28 August 2008 at the Wayback Machine" American Heritage. Retrieved 29 July 2010.
5. ^ "5 – National Security". South Africa: a country study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. 1997. ISBN 0-8444-0796-8.
6. ^ Jacques Bariéty (1994). "La France et la crise internationale du blocus de Berlin". Histoire, Économie et Société. 13 (1): 29–44. Retrieved 11 June 2017.
7. ^ Berlin Airlift: Logistics, Humanitarian Aid, and Strategic Success Archived 16 January 2007 at the Wayback Machine, Major Gregory C. Tine, Army Logistician
8. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference turner27 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
9. ^ Tunner 1964, p. 218
10. ^ Daum, Andreas W. (2000). "America's Berlin, 1945‒2000: Between Myths and Visions". In Trommler, Frank (ed.). Berlin: The New Capital in the East (PDF). The American Institute for Contemporary German Studies, Johns Hopkins University. pp. 49–73. Retrieved 2 March 2021.

Cite error: There are <ref group=nb> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=nb}} template (see the help page).

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