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4 June 1989 – The Tiananmen Square protests are suppressed in Beijing by the People's Liberation Army, with between 241 and 10,000 dead (an unofficial estimate)

v1989_Tiananmen_Square_protests

 

5 June 1968 – Presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy is assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan.

Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy

1968 assassination of US presidential candidate in Los Angeles, California

For the assassination of Robert's brother John, see Assassination of John F. Kennedy.

On June 5, 1968, Robert F. Kennedy was shot by Sirhan Sirhan at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, California, and pronounced dead the following day.

Kennedy, a United States senator and candidate in the 1968 Democratic Party presidential primaries, won the California and South Dakota primaries on June 4. He addressed his campaign supporters in the Ambassador Hotel's Embassy Ballroom. After leaving the podium, and exiting through a kitchen hallway, he was mortally wounded by multiple shots fired by Sirhan. Kennedy died at Good Samaritan Hospital nearly 25 hours later. His body was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.

Sirhan, a Palestinian Christian who held strong anti-Zionist and pro-Palestinian beliefs, testified in 1969 that he killed Kennedy "with 20 years of malice aforethought"; he was convicted and sentenced to death. Due to People v. Anderson, his sentence was commuted to life in prison in 1972 with a possibility of parole. His parole request has been denied numerous times. Kennedy's assassination prompted the Secret Service to protect presidential candidates. Additionally, it led to several conspiracy theories.

The assassination was one of four major assassinations of the 1960s in the United States, coming several years after the assassination of Kennedy's brother John in 1963 and the assassination of Malcolm X in 1965, and two months after the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968.

1. ^ Esty-Kendall 2018.
2. ^ State of California 2022.
3. ^ "Part II: Why Sirhan Sirhan Assassinated Robert Kennedy by Mel Ayton". Crimemagazine.com. Retrieved January 16, 2009.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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6 June 1964 – Rocket experiments at Cuxhaven are banned by the German authorities.

Rocket experiments in the area of Cuxhaven

Redirect to:

• List of rocket experiments in the area of Cuxhaven

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7 June 1977 – Five hundred million people watch the high day of the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II begin on television.

Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II

25th anniversary of the monarch's accession

The Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II marked the 25th anniversary of the accession of Queen Elizabeth II on 6 February 1952. It was celebrated with large-scale parties and parades throughout the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth throughout 1977, culminating in June with the official "Jubilee Days", held to coincide with the Queen's Official Birthday. The anniversary date itself was commemorated in church services across the land on 6 February 1977, and continued to be for the rest of that month. In March, preparations started for large parties in every major city of the United Kingdom, as well as for smaller ones for countless individual streets throughout the country.

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8 June 1949 – George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is published.

Nineteen Eighty-Four

1949 dystopian novel by George Orwell

This article is about the 1949 novel by George Orwell. For the year, see 1984. For other uses, see 1984 (disambiguation).

Nineteen Eighty-Four (also published as 1984) is a dystopian novel by the English writer George Orwell. It was published on 8 June 1949 by Secker & Warburg as Orwell's ninth and final completed book. Thematically, it centres on the consequences of totalitarianism, mass surveillance and repressive regimentation of people and behaviours within society.^[3][4] Orwell, a democratic socialist and an anti-Stalinist, modelled an authoritarian socialist Britain on the Soviet Union in the era of Stalinism and the practices of censorship and propaganda in Nazi Germany.^[5] More broadly, the novel examines the role of truth and facts within societies and the ways in which they can be manipulated.

The story takes place in an imagined future. The current year is uncertain, but believed to be 1984. Much of the world is in perpetual war. Great Britain, now known as Airstrip One, has become a province of the totalitarian superstate Oceania, which is led by Big Brother, a dictatorial leader supported by an intense cult of personality manufactured by the Party's Thought Police. The Party engages in omnipresent government surveillance and, through the Ministry of Truth, historical negationism and constant propaganda to persecute individuality and independent thinking.^[6]

Nineteen Eighty-Four has become a classic literary example of political and dystopian fiction. It also popularised the term "Orwellian" as an adjective, with many terms used in the novel entering common usage, including "Big Brother", "doublethink", "Thought Police", "thoughtcrime", "Newspeak" and the expression that "2 + 2 = 5". Parallels have been drawn between the novel's subject-matter and real life instances of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and violations of freedom of expression, among other themes.^[7][8][9] Orwell described his book as a "satire",^[10] and a display of the "perversions to which a centralised economy is liable", while also stating he believed "that something resembling it could arrive".^[10] Time magazine included it on its list of the 100 best English-language novels published from 1923 to 2005,^[11] and it was placed on the Modern Library's 100 Best Novels list, reaching number 13 on the editors' list and number 6 on the readers' list.^[12] In 2003 it was listed at number eight on The Big Read survey by the BBC.^[13] It has been adapted across media since its publication, most notably as a film, released in 1984, starring John Hurt, Suzanna Hamilton and Richard Burton.

1. ^ "Nineteen Eighty-Four". knowthyshelf.com. 13 August 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
2. ^ "Classify". OCLC. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
3. ^ Murphy, Bruce (1996). Benét's reader's encyclopedia. New York: Harper Collins. p. 734. ISBN 978-0-06-181088-6. OCLC 35572906.
4. ^ Aaronovitch, David (8 February 2013). "1984: George Orwell's road to dystopia". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
5. ^ Lynskey, Dorian (10 June 2019). "George Orwell's 1984: Why it still matters". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023 – via YouTube.
6. ^ Chernow, Barbara; Vallasi, George (1993). The Columbia Encyclopedia (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 2030. OCLC 334011745.
7. ^ Crouch, Ian (11 June 2013). "So Are We Living in 1984?". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 10 September 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
8. ^ Seaton, Jean. "Why Orwell's 1984 could be about now". BBC. Archived from the original on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
9. ^ Leetaru, Kalev. "As Orwell's 1984 Turns 70 It Predicted Much of Today's Surveillance Society". Forbes. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
10. ^ ^{a b} "The savage satire of '1984' still speaks to us today". The Independent. 7 June 1999. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023. Orwell said that his book was a satire – a warning certainly, but in the form of satire.
11. ^ Grossman, Lev (8 January 2010). "Is 1984 one of the All-TIME 100 Best Novels?". Time. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
12. ^ "100 Best Novels". Modern Library. Archived from the original on 2 October 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
13. ^ "The Big Read – Top 100 Books". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2022.

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9 June AD 53 – The Roman emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia.

Nero

Roman emperor from AD 54 to 68

For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation).

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (/ˈnɪəroʊ/ NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in AD 68.

Nero was born at Antium in AD 37, the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter of the emperor Augustus). Nero was three when his father died.^[1] By the time Nero turned eleven, his mother married Emperor Claudius, who then adopted Nero as his heir.^[2] Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne with the backing of the Praetorian Guard and the Senate. In the early years of his reign, Nero was advised and guided by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Seneca the Younger, and his praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, but sought to rule independently and rid himself of restraining influences. The power struggle between Nero and his mother reached its climax when he orchestrated her murder. Roman sources also implicate Nero in the deaths of both his wife Claudia Octavia – supposedly so he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and his stepbrother Britannicus.

Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, trade, and culture. He ordered the construction of amphitheaters, and promoted athletic games and contests. He made public appearances as an actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which scandalized his aristocratic contemporaries as these occupations were usually the domain of slaves, public entertainers, and infamous persons. However, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among lower-class citizens. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, and were much resented by the Roman aristocracy.

During Nero's reign, the general Corbulo fought the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, and made peace with the hostile Parthian Empire. The Roman general Suetonius Paulinus quashed a major revolt in Britain led by queen Boudica. The Bosporan Kingdom was briefly annexed to the empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. When the Roman senator Vindex rebelled, with support from the eventual Roman emperor Galba, Nero was declared a public enemy and condemned to death in absentia. He fled Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed suicide. His death sparked a brief period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors.

Most Roman sources offer overwhelmingly negative assessments of his personality and reign. Most contemporary sources describe him as tyrannical, self-indulgent, and debauched. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans believed the Great Fire of Rome was instigated by Nero to clear land for his planned "Golden House". Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians as scapegoats for the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice, but personal cruelty. Some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources on Nero's tyrannical acts, considering his popularity among the Roman commoners. In the eastern provinces of the Empire, a popular legend arose that Nero had not died and would return. After his death, at least three leaders of short-lived, failed rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular support.

1. ^ Suetonius, Nero, 6.
2. ^ "Julia Agrippina | Empress, Mother, Empress Nero | Britannica". January 2024.

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10 June 1999 – Kosovo War: NATO suspends its airstrikes after Slobodan Milošević agrees to withdraw Serbian forces from Kosovo.

Kosovo War

1998–1999 armed conflict in Kosovo

"Kosovo crisis" redirects here. For the crises in North Kosovo, see North Kosovo crisis.

The Kosovo War (Albanian: Lufta e Kosovës; Serbian: Косовски рат, Kosovski rat) was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from 28 February 1998 until 11 June 1999.^[63][64][65] It was fought between the forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), which controlled Kosovo before the war, and the Kosovo Albanian separatist militia known as the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). The conflict ended when the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened by beginning air strikes in March 1999 which resulted in Yugoslav forces withdrawing from Kosovo.

The KLA was formed in the early 1990s to fight against the discrimination of ethnic Albanians and the repression of political dissent by the Serbian authorities, which started after the suppression of Kosovo's autonomy and other discriminatory policies against Albanians by Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević in 1989.^[66][67] The KLA initiated its first campaign in 1995, after Kosovo's case was left out of the Dayton Agreement and it had become clear that President Rugova's strategy of peaceful resistance had failed to bring Kosovo onto the international agenda.^[68] In June 1996, the group claimed responsibility for acts of sabotage targeting Kosovo police stations, during the Kosovo Insurgency.^[69][70] In 1997, the organization acquired a large quantity of arms through weapons smuggling from Albania, following a rebellion in which weapons were looted from the country's police and army posts. In early 1998, KLA attacks targeting Yugoslav authorities in Kosovo resulted in an increased presence of Serb paramilitaries and regular forces who subsequently began pursuing a campaign of retribution targeting KLA sympathisers and political opponents;^[71] this campaign killed 1,500 to 2,000 civilians and KLA combatants, and had displaced 370,000 Kosovar Albanians by March 1999.^[72][73]

On 20 March 1999, Yugoslav forces began a massive campaign of repression and expulsions of Kosovar Albanians following the withdrawal of the OSCE Kosovo Verification Mission (KVM) and the failure of the proposed Rambouillet Agreement.^[72][74] In response to this, NATO intervened with an aerial bombing campaign that began on March 24, justifying it on humanitarian grounds.^[75] The war ended with the Kumanovo Agreement, signed on 9 June 1999, with Yugoslav and Serb forces^[76] agreeing to withdraw from Kosovo to make way for an international presence. NATO forces entered Kosovo on June 12.^[77][78] The NATO bombing campaign has remained controversial.^[79] It did not gain the approval of the UN Security Council and it caused at least 488 Yugoslav civilian deaths,^[80] including substantial deaths of Kosovar refugees.^[81][82][83]

In 2001, a UN administered Supreme Court based in Kosovo found that there had been a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments against the Albanian population, and that Yugoslav troops had tried to force them out of Kosovo, but not to eradicate them and therefore it was not genocide.^[84] After the war, a list was compiled which documented that over 13,500 people were killed or went missing during the two year conflict.^[85] The Yugoslav and Serb forces caused the displacement of between 1.2 million^[86] and 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians.^[87] After the war, around 200,000 Serbs, Romani, and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.^[88][89][90]

The Kosovo Liberation Army disbanded soon after the end of the war, with some of its members going on to fight for the UÇPMB in the Preševo Valley^[91] and others joining the National Liberation Army (NLA) and Albanian National Army (ANA) during the armed ethnic conflict in Macedonia,^[92] while others went on to form the Kosovo Police.^[93]

The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) convicted six Serb/Yugoslav officials and one Albanian commander for war crimes.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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11. ^ "Milosevic Claims Victory, Lauds Army". Washington Post. 11 June 1999.
12. ^ Reitman, Valerie; Richter, Paul; Dahlburg, John-Thor (10 June 1999). "Yugoslav, NATO Generals Sign Peace Agreement for Kosovo / Alliance will end air campaign when Serbian troops pull out". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
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19. ^ Kettle, Martin (29 May 1999). "Strength of KLA 'has tripled'". The Guardian.
20. ^ Bartrop, Paul R. (18 January 2016). Bosnian Genocide: The Essential Reference Guide. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-4408-3869-9. At the height of its operations, the KLA had some 20,000 armed troops.
21. ^ Bodansky, Yossef (4 May 2011). bin Laden: The Man Who Declared War on America. Crown Publishing Group. pp. 398–403. ISBN 978-0-307-79772-8.
22. ^ Davison, Phil (12 June 1999). "Focus: Kosovo Peace Deal - Briton in KLA 'kills 24 Serbs'". Independent. Retrieved 27 April 2024.
23. ^ "Balkans fighters are taking up arms in Ukraine, with risks for organized crime". Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. Retrieved 27 April 2024.
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28. ^ "Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo - 3. Forces of the Conflict". hrw.org. Human Rights Watch.
29. ^ Nation, R. Craig (2003). War in the Balkans, 1991–2002 (PDF). Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College. p. 227. ISBN 1-58487-134-2. In June 1998, the Yugoslav Army launched a counter offensive, massing over 40,000 troops operating with tanks, helicopters, heavy artillery, and mortar fire, that gathered momentum as it progressed and by late summer seemed to be on the verge of breaking organized resistance once and for all.
30. ^ "Чојство - Булах Глебович".
31. ^ "Fighting for a foreign land". BBC News. 20 May 1999. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
32. ^ "Russian volunteer's account of Kosovo". The Russia Journal. 5 July 1999. Archived from the original on 26 December 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
33. ^ Ukraine in the Crossfire. SCB Distributors. 5 April 2017. ISBN 9780997896541.
34. ^ Daalder & O'Hanlon 2000, p. 151.
35. ^ ^{a b c d e f} "Kosovo Memory Book Database Presentation and Evaluation" (PDF). Humanitarian Law Center. 4 February 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
36. ^ "Two die in Apache crash". BBC News. 5 May 1999. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
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41. ^ "Nato loses two planes". BBC News. 2 May 1999. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
42. ^ Kislyakov, Andrei (9 October 2007). "Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Increase In Numbers". Radardaily.com. RIA Novosti. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
43. ^ "NATO nam ubio 1.008 vojnika i policajaca". Mondo. 11 February 2013. Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
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45. ^ Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (2006). The Balkans: A Post-Communist History. Routledge. p. 558. ISBN 978-0-203-96911-3.
46. ^ Chambers II, John Whiteclay (1999). The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Oxford University Press. p. 375. ISBN 978-0-19-507198-6.
47. ^ Coopersmith, Jonathan; Launius, Roger D. (2003). Taking Off: A Century of Manned Flight. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-56347-610-5.
48. ^ Cockburn, Andrew (3 April 2011). "The limits of air power". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
49. ^ Macdonald 2007, p. 99.
50. ^ Bacevich & Cohen 2001, p. 22.
51. ^ Khan, Zafarul-Islam (22 August 2008). Russian Military Intelligence (GRU) Daily Reports on the Iraq War. Pharos. ISBN 978-81-7221-022-9. Retrieved 11 January 2025.
52. ^ "Ein Berliner, ein Dresdener und ein Däne erzählen, wie sie als Freiwillige zu den albanischen Rebellen der UCK kamen: Aus dem Schützenverein ins Kosovo". Berliner Zeitung (in German). 11 July 1999. Retrieved 3 April 2024. Am Nachmittag des 6. April stößt seine Einheit in einem Wäldchen nahe Pristina auf eine Gruppe von Kämpfern des berüchtigten Serbenführers Arkan. Erst nach einem langen, heftigen Schußwechsel ziehen sich Arkans Soldaten zurück. Sie haben zwanzig Männer verloren. Sascha sagt, die Gefallenen seien Russen gewesen. Auch einer der UCK-Soldaten stirbt in diesem Kampf. (German) On the afternoon of April 6, his unit encountered a group of fighters belonging to the notorious Serb leader Arkan in a forest near Pristina. Only after a long, fierce exchange of fire do Arkan's soldiers retreat. They lost twenty men. Sascha says the fallen were Russians. One of the KLA soldiers also dies in this fight. (English)
53. ^ "ОТКРИВАМО: Ко је убијени руски добровољац чији снимак убиства су објавили Албанци(Видео)". 15 February 2014.
54. ^ "List of killed, missing and disappeared 1998-2000".
55. ^ Clodfelter, Micheal (2008). Warfare and armed conflicts : A statistical encyclopedia of casualty and other figures, 1494-2007. McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7864-3319-3.
56. ^ ^{a b} "Facts and Figurues – War in Europe". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
57. ^ Judah, Tim (1997). The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (2009, 3rd ed.). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-300-15826-7. Retrieved 3 January 2021 – via Google Books. the Serbian police began clearing ... people [who] were marched down to the station and deported... the UNCHR registered 848,000 people who had either been forcibly expelled or had fled
58. ^ Kosovo/Kosova: As Seen. pp. Part III, Chap 14.
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66. ^ Reveron & Murer 2006, pp. 67–68.
67. ^ Weymouth, Tony. The Kosovo Crisis: The Last American War in Europe?. United Kingdom: Reuters, 2001.
68. ^ Kubo, Keiichi (9 August 2010). "Why Kosovar Albanians Took Up Arms against the Serbian Regime: The Genesis and Expansion of the UÇK in Kosovo". Europe-Asia Studies. 62 (7): 1135–1152. doi:10.1080/09668136.2010.497022. ISSN 0966-8136. S2CID 154405255. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
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93. ^ Kosovo Liberation Army: the inside story of an insurgency, by Henry H. Perritt ^{[page needed]}

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11 June 2012 – More than 80 people die in a landslide triggered by two earthquakes in Afghanistan; an entire village is buried.

2012 Afghanistan earthquakes

Earthquakes in Afghanistan in 2012

On 11 June 2012, two moderate earthquakes struck northern Afghanistan, causing a large landslide. The landslide buried the town of Sayi Hazara, trapping 71 people. After four days of digging, only five bodies were recovered and the search was called off.^[3] Overall, 75 people were killed and 13 others were injured.^[4]

1. ^ ANSS. "Hindu Kush 2012a: M 5.4 – Hindu Kush region, Afghanistan". Comprehensive Catalog. U.S. Geological Survey.
2. ^ ANSS. "Hindu Kush 2012b: M 5.7 – Hindu Kush region, Afghanistan". Comprehensive Catalog. U.S. Geological Survey.
3. ^ "Afghans halt effort to recover bodies of 66 people killed in landslide from earthquake". Associated Press. 14 June 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference BNO was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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12 June 2016 – Forty-nine civilians are killed and 58 others injured in an attack on a gay nightclub in Orlando, Florida; the gunman, Omar Mateen, is killed in a gunfight with police.

Orlando nightclub shooting

Redirect to:

• Pulse nightclub shooting

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13 June 1996 – The Montana Freemen surrender after an 81-day standoff with FBI agents.

Montana Freemen

Christian Patriot group based in Montana

The Montana Freemen were an anti-government Christian Patriot militia based outside the town of Jordan, Montana, United States. The members of the group referred to their land as "Justus Township" and had declared their leaders and followers "sovereign citizens" no longer under the authority of any outside government. They became the center of public attention in 1996 when they engaged in a prolonged armed standoff with agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

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14 June 1982 – Falklands War: Argentine forces in the capital Stanley conditionally surrender to British forces.

Falklands War

1982 undeclared Argentina–United Kingdom war

Not to be confused with the Falklands Crisis of 1770, or the Battle of the Falkland Islands.

The Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de las Malvinas) was a ten-week undeclared war between Argentina and the United Kingdom in 1982 over two British dependent territories in the South Atlantic: the Falkland Islands and its territorial dependency, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The conflict began on 2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands, followed by the invasion of South Georgia the next day. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Air Force before making an amphibious assault on the islands. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with an Argentine surrender on 14 June, returning the islands to British control. In total, 649 Argentine military personnel, 255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders were killed during the hostilities.

The conflict was a major episode in the protracted dispute over the territories' sovereignty. Argentina claimed (and maintains) that the islands are Argentine territory,^[4] and the Argentine government thus described its military action as the reclamation of its own territory. The British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been a Crown colony since 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty. Neither state officially declared war, although both governments declared the islands a war zone.

The conflict had a strong effect in both countries and has been the subject of various books, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the unfavourable outcome prompted large protests against the ruling military government, hastening its downfall and the democratisation of the country. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative government, bolstered by the successful outcome, was re-elected with an increased majority the following year. The cultural and political effect of the conflict has been less in the UK than in Argentina, where it has remained a common topic for discussion.^[5]

Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in 1989 following a meeting in Madrid, at which the two governments issued a joint statement.^[6] No change in either country's position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit. In 1994, Argentina adopted a new constitution,^[7] which declared the Falkland Islands as part of one of its provinces by law.^[8] However, the islands continue to operate as a self-governing British Overseas Territory.^[9]

1. ^ Burns, John F. (5 January 2013). "Vitriol Over Falklands Resurfaces, as Do Old Arguments". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2019.
2. ^ ^{a b} Argentina, ed. (1993). Historia marítima argentina, Volume 10 (in Spanish) (1a ed.). Buenos Aires: Cuántica Editora. p. 137. ISBN 978-950-9257-00-9.
3. ^ "Falkland Islands profile". BBC News. 5 November 2013. Archived from the original on 19 June 2014. Retrieved 19 June 2014.
4. ^ "Argentine to reaffirm Sovereignty Rights over The Falkland Islands". National Turk. 4 January 2012. Archived from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
5. ^ "Cómo evitar que Londres convierta a las Malvinas en un Estado independiente". Clarin. 1 April 2007. Archived from the original on 1 May 2010. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
6. ^ "Joint statement of 19 October 1989: Re-establishing Consular Relations Between Britain and Argentina, and Agreeing a Framework on Sovereignty Which Would Allow Further Talks". Falklands info. Archived from the original on 17 May 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
7. ^ "Constitución Nacional". Argentine Senate (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 17 June 2004. La Nación Argentina ratifica su legítima e imprescriptible soberanía sobre las Islas Malvinas, Georgias del Sur y Sandwich del Sur y los espacios marítimos e insulares correspondientes, por ser parte integrante del territorio nacional.
8. ^ "Argentina: Constitución de 1994". pdba.georgetown.edu. Archived from the original on 14 November 2020. Retrieved 3 August 2020.
9. ^ Cahill 2010, "Falkland Islands".

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15 June 1844 – Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber.

Charles Goodyear

American inventor (1800–1860)

For other people named Charles Goodyear, see Charles Goodyear (disambiguation).

Charles Goodyear (December 29, 1800 – July 1, 1860) was an American self-taught chemist^[1][2] and manufacturing engineer who developed vulcanized rubber, for which he received patent number 3633 from the United States Patent Office on June 15, 1844.^[3]

Goodyear is credited with inventing the chemical process to create and manufacture pliable, waterproof, moldable rubber.^[4]

Goodyear's discovery of the vulcanization process followed five years of searching for a more stable rubber and stumbling upon the effectiveness of heating after Thomas Hancock.^[5] His discovery initiated decades of successful rubber manufacturing in the Lower Naugatuck Valley in Connecticut, as rubber was adopted to multiple applications, including footwear and tires. The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company is named after (though not founded by) him.

1. ^ Zumdahl, Steven; Zumdahl, Susan (2014). Chemistry (Ninth ed.). Belmont, California: Brookes Cole/Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-133-61109-7. Retrieved October 25, 2014. However, in 1839 Charles Goodyear (1800–1860), an American chemist,…
2. ^ Haven, Kendall; Berg, Roni (1999). The Science and Math Bookmark Book:300 Fascinating, Fact-Filled Bookmarks. Englewood, Colorado: Teacher Ideas Press/Libraries Unlimited, Inc. ISBN 1-56308-675-1. Retrieved October 25, 2014. Famous Scientists: Charles Goodyear, chemist.
3. ^ "United States Patent Office" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 14, 2015.
4. ^ Hosler, D. (18 June 1999). "Prehistoric Polymers: Rubber Processing in Ancient Mesoamerica". Science. 284 (5422): 1988–1991. doi:10.1126/science.284.5422.1988. PMID 10373117.
5. ^ Slack, Charles (2003). Noble Obsession, 225, Hyperion. ISBN 0-7868-8856-3.

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16 June 2016 – Shanghai Disneyland Park, the first Disney Park in Mainland China, opens to the public

Shanghai Disneyland

Theme park

Shanghai Disneyland (Chinese: 上海迪士尼乐园; Pinyin: Shànghǎi díshìní lèyuán, Shanghainese: Zaon-he Diq-zy-nyi Loq-yoe) is a theme park located in Chuansha New Town, Pudong, Shanghai, China, that is part of the Shanghai Disney Resort. The park is operated by Disney Experiences and Shanghai Shendi Group, through a joint venture between The Walt Disney Company and Shendi.^[2] Construction began on April 8, 2011.^[3][4] The park opened on June 16, 2016.^[1] The park operated in its first half-year with a visitor attendance of 5.60 million guests.^[5]

The park covers an area of 3.9 square kilometres (1.5 sq mi), costing 24.5 billion RMB, with Shendi group holding 57% and Disney holding the remaining 43%. The park currently has eight themed areas: Mickey Avenue, Gardens of Imagination, Fantasyland, Treasure Cove, Adventure Isle, Tomorrowland, Toy Story Land, and Zootopia. In 2023, the park hosted 14 million visitors, making it the fifth-most visited theme park in the world.^[6]

1. ^ ^{a b} Smith, Thomas (January 12, 2016). "Opening Date Set for Shanghai Disney Resort, Disney's Newest World-Class Destination". DisneyParks Blog. Archived from the original on June 18, 2016. Retrieved January 12, 2016.
2. ^ ^{a b c d e} Brzeski, Patrick (June 8, 2016). "Shanghai Disney Resort Finally Opens After 5 Years of Construction and $5.5B Spent". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on June 9, 2016. Retrieved June 9, 2016.
3. ^ "Disneyland Shanghai to open 2016". The Independent. April 8, 2011. Archived from the original on November 19, 2014. Retrieved October 30, 2014.
4. ^ "Disney and Partners Break Ground on Shanghai Disney Resort" (Press release). Shanghai Disneyland Press Room. April 8, 2011. Archived from the original on June 12, 2011. Retrieved May 26, 2011.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference 2016 attendance was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ "TEA/AECOM 2023 Global Attractions Attendance Report". 2024. Retrieved August 16, 2024.

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17 June 1972 – Watergate scandal: Five White House operatives are arrested for burgling the offices of the Democratic National Committee during an attempt by members of the administration of President Richard M. Nixon to illegally wiretap the political opposition as part of a broader campaign to subvert the democratic process

Watergate scandal

Early 1970s political scandal in the U.S.

"Watergate" redirects here. For the buildings, see Watergate complex. For other uses, see Watergate (disambiguation).

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Watergate scandal.

The Watergate scandal was a major political scandal in the United States involving the administration of President Richard Nixon. The scandal began in 1972 and ultimately led to Nixon's resignation in August 1974. It revolved around members of a group associated with Nixon's 1972 re-election campaign, who broke into the Democratic National Committee headquarters in the Watergate Hotel in the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., on June 17, 1972, where they planted listening devices, and Nixon's later attempts to conceal his administration's involvement in the burglary.

Following the arrest of the Watergate burglars, media and the Department of Justice connected money found with those involved in the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CRP), the fundraising arm of Nixon's campaign.^[1][2] Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward, journalists from The Washington Post, pursued leads provided by a source they called "Deep Throat" (later identified as Mark Felt, associate director of the FBI) and uncovered an enormous campaign of political spying and sabotage directed by White House officials and illegally funded by donor contributions. Nixon dismissed the accusations as political smears, and he won the election in a landslide in November. Further investigation and revelations from the burglars' trial led the Senate to establish a special Watergate Committee and the House of Representatives to grant its Judiciary Committee expanded authority in February 1973.^[3][4] The burglars received lengthy prison sentences, with the promise of reduced terms if they cooperated—prompting a flood of witness testimony. In April, Nixon appeared on television to deny wrongdoing on his part and to announce the resignation of his aides. After it was revealed that Nixon had installed a voice-activated taping system in the Oval Office, his administration refused to grant investigators access to the tapes, leading to a constitutional crisis.^[5] The televised Senate Watergate hearings by this point had garnered nationwide attention and public interest.^[6]

Attorney General Elliot Richardson appointed Archibald Cox as a special prosecutor for Watergate in May. Cox obtained a subpoena for the tapes, but Nixon continued to resist. In the "Saturday Night Massacre" in October, Nixon ordered Richardson to fire Cox, after which Richardson resigned, as did his deputy William Ruckelshaus; Solicitor General Robert Bork carried out the order. The incident bolstered a growing public belief that Nixon had something to hide, but he continued to defend his innocence and said he was "not a crook.” In April 1974, Cox's replacement Leon Jaworski issued a subpoena for the tapes again, but Nixon only released edited transcripts of them. In July, the Supreme Court ordered Nixon to release the tapes, and the House Judiciary Committee recommended that he be impeached for obstructing justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress. In one of the tapes, later known as "the smoking gun,” he ordered aides to tell the FBI to halt its investigation. On the verge of being impeached, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9, 1974, becoming the only U.S. president to do so. In all, 48 people were found guilty of Watergate-related crimes, but Nixon was pardoned by his vice president and successor Gerald Ford on September 8.

Public response to the Watergate disclosures had electoral ramifications: the Republican Party lost four seats in the Senate and 48 seats in the House at the 1974 mid-term elections, and Ford's pardon of Nixon is widely agreed to have contributed to his election defeat in 1976. A word combined with the suffix "-gate" has become widely used to name scandals, even outside the U.S.,^[7][8][9] and especially in politics.^[10][11]

1. ^ Perry, James M. "Watergate Case Study". Class Syllabus for "Critical Issues in Journalism". Columbia School of Journalism, Columbia University. Archived from the original on July 15, 2019. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
2. ^ Dickinson, William B.; Cross, Mercer; Polsky, Barry (1973). Watergate: chronology of a crisis. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc. pp. 8, 133, 140, 180, 188. ISBN 0-87187-059-2. OCLC 20974031.
3. ^ Rybicki, Elizabeth; Greene, Michael (October 10, 2019). "The Impeachment Process in the House of Representatives". CRS Report for Congress. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. pp. 5–7. R45769. Archived from the original on January 22, 2020. Retrieved November 7, 2019.
4. ^ "H.Res.74 – 93rd Congress, 1st Session". congress.gov. February 28, 1973. Archived from the original on December 30, 2019. Retrieved October 21, 2019.
5. ^ "A burglary turns into a constitutional crisis". CNN. June 16, 2004. Archived from the original on November 30, 2020. Retrieved May 13, 2014.
6. ^ "'Gavel-to-Gavel': The Watergate Scandal and Public Television". American Archive of Public Broadcasting. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
7. ^ Hamilton, Dagmar S. "The Nixon Impeachment and the Abuse of Presidential Power", In Watergate and Afterward: The Legacy of Richard M. Nixon. Leon Friedman and William F. Levantrosser, eds. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1992. ISBN 0-313-27781-8
8. ^ Smith, Ronald D. and Richter, William Lee. Fascinating People and Astounding Events From American History. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1993. ISBN 0-87436-693-3
9. ^ Lull, James and Hinerman, Stephen. Media Scandals: Morality and Desire in the Popular Culture Marketplace. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-231-11165-7
10. ^ Trahair, R.C.S. From Aristotelian to Reaganomics: A Dictionary of Eponyms With Biographies in the Social Sciences. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1994. ISBN 0-313-27961-6
11. ^ "El 'valijagate' sigue dando disgustos a Cristina Fernández | Internacional". El País. November 4, 2008. Archived from the original on July 2, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2014.

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18 June 1953 – The Egyptian revolution of 1952 ends with the overthrow of the Muhammad Ali dynasty and the declaration of the Republic of Egypt.

Egyptian revolution of 1952

Redirect to:

• 1952 Egyptian revolution

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18 June 1953 – The Egyptian revolution of 1952 ends with the overthrow of the Muhammad Ali dynasty and the declaration of the Republic of Egypt.

Egyptian revolution of 1952

Redirect to:

• 1952 Egyptian revolution

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19 June 2012 – WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange requested asylum in London's Ecuadorian Embassy for fear of extradition to the US after publication of previously classified documents including footage of civilian killings by the US army.

Julian Assange

Australian editor and founder of WikiLeaks (born 1971)

Julian Paul Assange (/əˈsɑːnʒ/ ^ⓘ ə-SAHNZH;^[3] né Hawkins; born 3 July 1971) is an Australian editor, publisher, and activist who founded WikiLeaks in 2006. He came to international attention in 2010 after WikiLeaks published a series of leaks from Chelsea Manning, a United States Army intelligence analyst:^[4] footage of a U.S. airstrike in Baghdad, U.S. military logs from the Afghanistan and Iraq wars, and U.S. diplomatic cables. Assange has won over two dozen awards for publishing and human rights activism.

Assange was raised in various places around Australia until his family settled in Melbourne in his middle teens. He became involved in the hacker community and was convicted for hacking in 1996.^[5][6][7] Following the establishment of WikiLeaks, Assange was its editor when it published the Bank Julius Baer documents, footage of the 2008 Tibetan unrest, and a report on political killings in Kenya with The Sunday Times. Publication of the leaks from Manning started in February 2010.

In November 2010 Sweden wished to question Assange in an unrelated police investigation and sought to extradite him from the UK.^[8] In June 2012, Assange breached his bail and took refuge in the Embassy of Ecuador in London.^[9] He was granted asylum by Ecuador in August 2012^[10] on the grounds of political persecution and fears he might be extradited to the United States.^[11] Swedish prosecutors dropped their investigation in 2019.^[12]

In 2013, Assange launched the WikiLeaks Party and unsuccessfully stood for the Australian Senate while remaining in Ecuador’s embassy in London.^[13][14] Also while in the embassy, the Mueller report suggested that he interfered with the US presidential election; specifically he was alleged to have conspired with Russian agents to elect Donald Trump.

On 11 April 2019, Assange's asylum was withdrawn following a series of disputes with Ecuadorian authorities; the police were invited into the embassy and he was arrested.^[15] He was found guilty of breaching the United Kingdom Bail Act and sentenced to 50 weeks in prison.^[16] The U.S. government unsealed an indictment charging Assange with conspiracy to commit computer intrusion related to the leaks provided by Manning.^[17] In May 2019 and June 2020, the U.S. government unsealed new indictments against Assange, charging him with violating the Espionage Act of 1917 and alleging he had conspired with hackers.^[18][19][20] The key witness for the new indictment, whom the justice department had given immunity in return for giving evidence, stated in 2021 that he had fabricated his testimony. Critics have described these charges as an unprecedented challenge to press freedom with potential implications for investigative journalism worldwide.^[21][22] Assange was incarcerated in HM Prison Belmarsh in London from April 2019 to June 2024, as the U.S. government's extradition effort was contested in the UK courts.^[23][24]

In 2022, the incoming Australian Labor government of Anthony Albanese reversed the position of previous governments and began to lobby for Assange's release. In 2024, following a High Court ruling that granted Assange a full appeal to extradition, Assange and his lawyers negotiated a deal with US prosecutors. Assange agreed to a plea deal in which he pleaded guilty in Saipan to an Espionage Act charge of conspiring to obtain and disclose classified U.S. national defence documents in return for a sentence of time served.^[25][26] Following the hearing Assange flew to Australia, arriving on 26 June.^[27]

1. ^ McGreal, Chris (5 April 2010). "Wikileaks reveals video showing US air crew shooting down Iraqi civilians". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
2. ^ "WikiLeaks names one-time spokesman as editor-in-chief". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 September 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
3. ^ "The Julian Assange Show: Cypherpunks Uncut (p.1)" on YouTube
4. ^ "USA must drop charges against Julian Assange". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 21 February 2024. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
5. ^ Lagan, Bernard (10 April 2010). "International man of mystery". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference TeenHacker was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ "Julian Assange: the hacker who created WikiLeaks". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
8. ^ "Wikileaks' Assange faces international arrest warrant". BBC News. 20 November 2010. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
9. ^ Bowater, Donna (20 June 2012). "Julian Assange faces re-arrest over breaching his bail condition by seeking asylum in Ecuador". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022.
10. ^ Neuman, William; Ayala, Maggy (16 August 2012). "Ecuador Grants Asylum to Assange, Defying Britain". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 3 June 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
11. ^ Wallace, Arturo (16 August 2012). "Julian Assange: Why Ecuador is offering asylum". BBC. Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
12. ^ "Julian Assange: Sweden drops rape investigation". BBC. 19 November 2019. Archived from the original on 16 January 2022. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
13. ^ Dorling, Philip (26 March 2012). "Assange: what I'll do in the Senate". The Age. Archived from the original on 10 October 2023. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
14. ^ "Julian Assange: WikiLeaks party will continue". The Guardian. 8 September 2013. Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2020.
15. ^ "Police arrest Julian Assange at Ecuadorian Embassy in London". CNN. 11 April 2019. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
16. ^ "Julian Assange jailed over bail breach". BBC News. 1 May 2019. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
17. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Charged in Computer Hacking Conspiracy". United States Attorney's Office. Alexandria, Virginia. 11 April 2019. Archived from the original on 10 January 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
18. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Julian Assange Charged in 18-Count Superseding Indictment". US Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. 23 May 2019. Archived from the original on 24 May 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
19. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Charged in Superseding Indictment". US Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. 24 June 2020. Archived from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
20. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Julian Assange Accused of Conspiring With LulzSec and Anonymous Hackers". Time. 25 June 2020. Archived from the original on 27 July 2023. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
21. ^ Savage, Charlie (25 June 2024). "Assange's Plea Deal Sets a Chilling Precedent, but It Could Have Been Worse". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 26 June 2024. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
22. ^ Topping, Alexandra (25 June 2024). "Experts warn Julian Assange plea deal could set dangerous precedent". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
23. ^ Rebaza, Claudia; Fox, Kara (4 January 2021). "UK judge denies US request to extradite Julian Assange". CNN. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
24. ^ Doherty, Ben (9 June 2023). "Julian Assange 'dangerously close' to US extradition after losing latest legal appeal". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
25. ^ Yamaguchi, Mari; Richer, Alanna Durkin; Esmores, Kimberly; Tucker, Eric (25 June 2024). "WikiLeaks' Assange pleads guilty in deal with US that secures his freedom, ends legal fight". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 25 June 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
26. ^ Nakashima, Ellen; Barrett, Devlin; Weiner, Rachel (24 June 2024). "Wikileaks founder Julian Assange expected to plead guilty to felony charge". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 25 June 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
27. ^ "Julian Assange to attend plea deal hearing in Saipan". The Washington Post. 25 June 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.

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19 June 2012 – WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange requested asylum in London's Ecuadorian Embassy for fear of extradition to the US after publication of previously classified documents including footage of civilian killings by the US army.

Julian Assange

Australian editor and founder of WikiLeaks (born 1971)

Julian Paul Assange (/əˈsɑːnʒ/ ^ⓘ ə-SAHNZH;^[3] né Hawkins; born 3 July 1971) is an Australian editor, publisher, and activist who founded WikiLeaks in 2006. He came to international attention in 2010 after WikiLeaks published a series of leaks from Chelsea Manning, a United States Army intelligence analyst:^[4] footage of a U.S. airstrike in Baghdad, U.S. military logs from the Afghanistan and Iraq wars, and U.S. diplomatic cables. Assange has won over two dozen awards for publishing and human rights activism.

Assange was raised in various places around Australia until his family settled in Melbourne in his middle teens. He became involved in the hacker community and was convicted for hacking in 1996.^[5][6][7] Following the establishment of WikiLeaks, Assange was its editor when it published the Bank Julius Baer documents, footage of the 2008 Tibetan unrest, and a report on political killings in Kenya with The Sunday Times. Publication of the leaks from Manning started in February 2010.

In November 2010 Sweden wished to question Assange in an unrelated police investigation and sought to extradite him from the UK.^[8] In June 2012, Assange breached his bail and took refuge in the Embassy of Ecuador in London.^[9] He was granted asylum by Ecuador in August 2012^[10] on the grounds of political persecution and fears he might be extradited to the United States.^[11] Swedish prosecutors dropped their investigation in 2019.^[12]

In 2013, Assange launched the WikiLeaks Party and unsuccessfully stood for the Australian Senate while remaining in Ecuador’s embassy in London.^[13][14] Also while in the embassy, the Mueller report suggested that he interfered with the US presidential election; specifically he was alleged to have conspired with Russian agents to elect Donald Trump.

On 11 April 2019, Assange's asylum was withdrawn following a series of disputes with Ecuadorian authorities; the police were invited into the embassy and he was arrested.^[15] He was found guilty of breaching the United Kingdom Bail Act and sentenced to 50 weeks in prison.^[16] The U.S. government unsealed an indictment charging Assange with conspiracy to commit computer intrusion related to the leaks provided by Manning.^[17] In May 2019 and June 2020, the U.S. government unsealed new indictments against Assange, charging him with violating the Espionage Act of 1917 and alleging he had conspired with hackers.^[18][19][20] The key witness for the new indictment, whom the justice department had given immunity in return for giving evidence, stated in 2021 that he had fabricated his testimony. Critics have described these charges as an unprecedented challenge to press freedom with potential implications for investigative journalism worldwide.^[21][22] Assange was incarcerated in HM Prison Belmarsh in London from April 2019 to June 2024, as the U.S. government's extradition effort was contested in the UK courts.^[23][24]

In 2022, the incoming Australian Labor government of Anthony Albanese reversed the position of previous governments and began to lobby for Assange's release. In 2024, following a High Court ruling that granted Assange a full appeal to extradition, Assange and his lawyers negotiated a deal with US prosecutors. Assange agreed to a plea deal in which he pleaded guilty in Saipan to an Espionage Act charge of conspiring to obtain and disclose classified U.S. national defence documents in return for a sentence of time served.^[25][26] Following the hearing Assange flew to Australia, arriving on 26 June.^[27]

1. ^ McGreal, Chris (5 April 2010). "Wikileaks reveals video showing US air crew shooting down Iraqi civilians". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
2. ^ "WikiLeaks names one-time spokesman as editor-in-chief". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 September 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
3. ^ "The Julian Assange Show: Cypherpunks Uncut (p.1)" on YouTube
4. ^ "USA must drop charges against Julian Assange". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 21 February 2024. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
5. ^ Lagan, Bernard (10 April 2010). "International man of mystery". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 23 June 2018. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference TeenHacker was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
7. ^ "Julian Assange: the hacker who created WikiLeaks". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
8. ^ "Wikileaks' Assange faces international arrest warrant". BBC News. 20 November 2010. Archived from the original on 19 November 2021. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
9. ^ Bowater, Donna (20 June 2012). "Julian Assange faces re-arrest over breaching his bail condition by seeking asylum in Ecuador". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022.
10. ^ Neuman, William; Ayala, Maggy (16 August 2012). "Ecuador Grants Asylum to Assange, Defying Britain". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 3 June 2023. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
11. ^ Wallace, Arturo (16 August 2012). "Julian Assange: Why Ecuador is offering asylum". BBC. Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
12. ^ "Julian Assange: Sweden drops rape investigation". BBC. 19 November 2019. Archived from the original on 16 January 2022. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
13. ^ Dorling, Philip (26 March 2012). "Assange: what I'll do in the Senate". The Age. Archived from the original on 10 October 2023. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
14. ^ "Julian Assange: WikiLeaks party will continue". The Guardian. 8 September 2013. Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 19 February 2020.
15. ^ "Police arrest Julian Assange at Ecuadorian Embassy in London". CNN. 11 April 2019. Archived from the original on 9 April 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
16. ^ "Julian Assange jailed over bail breach". BBC News. 1 May 2019. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 1 May 2019.
17. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Charged in Computer Hacking Conspiracy". United States Attorney's Office. Alexandria, Virginia. 11 April 2019. Archived from the original on 10 January 2023. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
18. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Julian Assange Charged in 18-Count Superseding Indictment". US Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. 23 May 2019. Archived from the original on 24 May 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
19. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Charged in Superseding Indictment". US Department of Justice, Office of Public Affairs. 24 June 2020. Archived from the original on 27 June 2022. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
20. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Julian Assange Accused of Conspiring With LulzSec and Anonymous Hackers". Time. 25 June 2020. Archived from the original on 27 July 2023. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
21. ^ Savage, Charlie (25 June 2024). "Assange's Plea Deal Sets a Chilling Precedent, but It Could Have Been Worse". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 26 June 2024. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
22. ^ Topping, Alexandra (25 June 2024). "Experts warn Julian Assange plea deal could set dangerous precedent". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
23. ^ Rebaza, Claudia; Fox, Kara (4 January 2021). "UK judge denies US request to extradite Julian Assange". CNN. Archived from the original on 4 January 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
24. ^ Doherty, Ben (9 June 2023). "Julian Assange 'dangerously close' to US extradition after losing latest legal appeal". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 10 June 2023. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
25. ^ Yamaguchi, Mari; Richer, Alanna Durkin; Esmores, Kimberly; Tucker, Eric (25 June 2024). "WikiLeaks' Assange pleads guilty in deal with US that secures his freedom, ends legal fight". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 25 June 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
26. ^ Nakashima, Ellen; Barrett, Devlin; Weiner, Rachel (24 June 2024). "Wikileaks founder Julian Assange expected to plead guilty to felony charge". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 25 June 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
27. ^ "Julian Assange to attend plea deal hearing in Saipan". The Washington Post. 25 June 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.

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20 June 1975 – The film Jaws is released in the United States, becoming the highest-grossing film of that time and starting the trend of films known as "summer blockbusters".

Jaws (film)

1975 thriller film by Steven Spielberg

Jaws is a 1975 American thriller film directed by Steven Spielberg. Based on the 1974 novel by Peter Benchley, it stars Roy Scheider as police chief Martin Brody, who, with the help of a marine biologist (Richard Dreyfuss) and a professional shark hunter (Robert Shaw), hunts a man-eating great white shark that attacks beachgoers at a New England summer resort town. Murray Hamilton plays the mayor, and Lorraine Gary portrays Brody's wife. The screenplay is credited to Benchley, who wrote the first drafts, and actor-writer Carl Gottlieb, who rewrote the script during principal photography.

Shot mostly on location at Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts from May to October 1974, Jaws was the first major motion picture to be shot on the ocean and consequently had a troubled production, going over budget and schedule. As the art department's mechanical sharks often malfunctioned, Spielberg decided to mostly suggest the shark's presence, employing an ominous and minimalist theme created by composer John Williams to indicate its impending appearances. Spielberg and others have compared this suggestive approach to that of director Alfred Hitchcock. Universal Pictures released the film to over 450 screens, an exceptionally wide release for a major studio picture at the time, accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign with heavy emphasis on television spots and tie-in merchandise.

Regarded as a watershed moment in motion picture history, Jaws was the prototypical summer blockbuster and won several awards for its music and editing. It was the highest-grossing film in history until the release of Star Wars two years later; both films were pivotal in establishing the modern Hollywood business model, which pursues high box-office returns from action and adventure films with simple high-concept premises, released during the summer in thousands of theaters and advertised heavily. Jaws was followed by three sequels, none of which involved Spielberg or Benchley, as well as many imitative thrillers. In 2001, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

1. ^ ^{a b} "Jaws (1975)". AFI Catalog of Feature Films. Archived from the original on March 26, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2018.
2. ^ "JAWS (A)". British Board of Film Classification. June 12, 1975. Archived from the original on January 30, 2016. Retrieved June 22, 2021.

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21 June 1307 – Külüg Khan is enthroned as Khagan of the Mongols and Wuzong of the Yuan.

Külüg Khan

Emperor of Yuan China from 1307 to 1311

This article is about Yuan emperor. For the leader of Mongolian independence movement, see Bayantömöriin Khaisan.

Külüg Khan (Mongolian: Хүлэг; Mongolian script: ᠬᠥᠯᠥᠭ; Chinese: 曲律汗), born Khayishan (Mongolian: Хайсан ᠬᠠᠶᠢᠰᠠᠩ; Chinese: 海山, Mongolian: Хайсан, meaning "wall"^{[note 1]}), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Wuzong of Yuan (Chinese: 元武宗; pinyin: Yuán Wǔzōng; Wade–Giles: Wu-Tsung) (August 4, 1281 – January 27, 1311), was an emperor of the Yuan dynasty of China. Apart from being the Emperor of China, he is regarded as the seventh Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, although it was only nominal due to the division of the empire. His regnal name "Külüg Khan" means "warrior Khan" or "fine horse Khan" in the Mongolian language.
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22 June 2000 – Wuhan Airlines Flight 343 is struck by lightning and crashes into Wuhan's Hanyang District, killing 49 people

Wuhan Airlines Flight 343

2000 passenger plane crash in Wuhan, Hubei province, China

Wuhan Airlines Flight 343 was a domestic scheduled passenger flight between Enshi Airport and Wuhan Wangjiadun Airport, both in Hubei province, Central China. On 22 June 2000, the Wuhan Airlines Xian Y-7, registration B-3479, flying the route crashed after encountering an area of adverse weather; the aircraft was struck by lightning and encountered windshear.

Immediately after the accident, China ordered all of Wuhan Airlines' Xian Y-7 aircraft be grounded. One month after the accident, they were allowed to resume service.

The accident remains the deadliest involving a Xian Y-7 aircraft.^[1]

1. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference ASN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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23 June 2017 – A series of terrorist attacks took place in Pakistan resulting in 96 deaths and wounded 200 others.

June 2017 Pakistan attacks

2017 terrorist attacks in the Pakistani cities of Quetta, Parachinar, and Karachi

On 23 June 2017, a series of terrorist attacks took place in Pakistan resulting in 96 dead and over 200 wounded. They included a suicide bombing in Quetta targeting policemen, followed by a double bombing at a market in Parachinar, and the targeted killing of four policemen in Karachi.^[1][2][3]

Responsibility for the Quetta attack was claimed by Jamaat-ul-Ahrar and ISIL,^[4] while no group accepted responsibility for the Parachinar attack.^[5] According to the military, both attacks were coordinated from terrorist sanctuaries in Afghanistan.^[6]

1. ^ "Pakistan: Bombings in 2 cities kill at least 38". CNN. 23 June 2017. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference DAWN3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference AlJazeera was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference ET1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Cite error: The named reference DAWN6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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24 June 1995 – Rugby World Cup: South Africa defeats New Zealand and Nelson Mandela presents Francois Pienaar with the Webb Ellis Cup in an iconic post-apartheid moment.

1995 Rugby World Cup

Men's rugby union event in South Africa

This article is about the rugby union event. For the rugby league event, see 1995 Rugby League World Cup.

The 1995 Rugby World Cup (Afrikaans: Rugbywêreldbeker 1995), was the third Rugby World Cup. It was hosted and won by South Africa, and was the first Rugby World Cup in which every match was held in one country.

The World Cup was the first major sporting event to take place in South Africa following the end of apartheid. It was also the first World Cup in which South Africa was allowed to compete; the International Rugby Football Board (IRFB, now World Rugby) had only readmitted South Africa to international rugby in 1992, following negotiations to end apartheid. The World Cup was also the last major event of rugby union's amateur era; two months after the tournament, the IRFB opened the sport to professionalism.

In the final, held at Ellis Park in Johannesburg on 24 June, South Africa defeated New Zealand 15–12, with Joel Stransky scoring a drop goal in extra time to win the match. Following South Africa's victory, Nelson Mandela, the President of South Africa, wearing a Springboks rugby shirt and cap, presented the Webb Ellis Cup to the South African captain François Pienaar.

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25 June 1978 – The rainbow flag representing gay pride is flown for the first time during the San Francisco Gay Freedom Day Parade.

Rainbow flag (LGBT)

Redirect to:

• Rainbow flag (LGBTQ)

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26 June 2008 – A suicide bomber dressed as an Iraqi policeman detonates an explosive vest, killing 25 people.

2008 Karmah bombing

Terrorist attack in central Iraq

The 26 June 2008 Karmah bombing was a suicide attack on a meeting of tribal sheiks in the town of Al-Karmah. Three Marines from 2nd Battalion 3rd Marines (including the battalion's commanding officer), as well as twenty Iraqi sheiks and the mayor of Karmah, were killed when a suicide bomber dressed as an Iraqi Policeman detonated an explosive vest. Two interpreters were also killed in the blast.^[1][2] The aftermath of the attack was captured on film by photojournalist Zoriah Miller.^[3] The commanding officer of 2/3, LtCol Max Galeai and two other Marines (Captain Philip J. Dykeman and Cpl. Marcus W. Preudhomme) from the battalion were killed.^[4] In June 2008, it was announced that Anbar would be the tenth province to transfer to Provincial Iraqi Control, the first Sunni Arab region to be handed back. This handover was delayed due to the attack.^[5][6] The handover did occur on September 1, 2008.^[7] Two insurgents linked to the bombing were later caught in Tamariya.^[6]

1. ^ "Suicide bomber kills 3 Hawaii Marines - Battalion commander among suicide bomber's victims". 28 June 2008. Retrieved 28 June 2008.^{[permanent dead link]}
2. ^ "U.S. Department of Defense". U.S. Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
3. ^ "Anbar Province Suicide Bombing - Zoriah's Eyewitness Account - Iraq War Diary". ZORIAH - A PHOTOJOURNALIST AND WAR PHOTOGRAPHER'S BLOG. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
4. ^ Vorsino, Mary (28 June 2008). "Suicide bomber kills 3 Hawaii Marines - Battalion commander among suicide bomber's victims". The Honolulu Advertiser. Retrieved 28 June 2008.^{[permanent dead link]}
5. ^ Cocks, Tim (27 June 2008). "U.S. handover of Iraqi province delayed". Reuters. Archived from the original on 20 November 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2008.
6. ^ ^{a b} Yacoub, Sameer (1 August 2008). "Insurgents linked to US Marine deaths caught". AP via Yahoo News. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2008.
7. ^ "US hands over key Iraq province". BBC News. 1 September 2008. Archived from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2008.

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27 June 2013 – NASA launches the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, a space probe to observe the Sun.

Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

NASA satellite of the Explorer program

Not to be confused with Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS).

Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS),^[1] also called Explorer 94 and SMEX-12,^[2] is a NASA solar observation satellite. The mission was funded through the Small Explorer program to investigate the physical conditions of the solar limb, particularly the interface region made up of the chromosphere and transition region. The spacecraft consists of a satellite bus and spectrometer built by the Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory (LMSAL), and a telescope provided by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO). IRIS is operated by LMSAL and NASA's Ames Research Center.

The satellite's instrument is a high-frame-rate ultraviolet imaging spectrometer, providing one image per second at 0.3-arcsecond angular resolution and sub-ångström spectral resolution.

NASA announced, on 19 June 2009, that IRIS was selected from six Small Explorer mission candidates for further study,^[3] along with the Gravity and Extreme Magnetism (GEMS) space observatory.^[4]

1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Display was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
2. ^ "NASA's Explorer Program Satellites". NASA. 22 July 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2021. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
3. ^ Cite error: The named reference nasa20080529 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
4. ^ Cite error: The named reference nasa20090619 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).

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28 June 1926 – Mercedes-Benz is formed by Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz merging their two companies.

Mercedes-Benz

German luxury automotive brand

This article is about the brand and the namesake vehicle manufacturer. For other uses, see Mercedes-Benz (disambiguation).

Mercedes-Benz (German pronunciation: [mɛʁˌtseːdəs ˈbɛnts, -dɛs -] ^ⓘ),^[6][7] commonly referred to simply as Mercedes and occasionally as Benz, is a German automotive brand that was founded in 1926. Mercedes-Benz AG (a subsidiary of the Mercedes-Benz Group, established in 2019) is based in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.^[1] Mercedes-Benz AG manufactures luxury vehicles and light commercial vehicles, all branded under the Mercedes-Benz name. From November 2019 onwards, the production of Mercedes-Benz-branded heavy commercial vehicles (trucks and buses) has been managed by Daimler Truck, which separated from the Mercedes-Benz Group to form an independent entity at the end of 2021.

In 2018, Mercedes-Benz became the world’s largest premium vehicle brand, with a sales volume of 2.31 million passenger cars.^[8]

The roots of the brand trace back to the 1901 Mercedes by Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft and the 1886 Benz Patent-Motorwagen and 1894 Benz Velo by Carl Benz, which is widely recognized as the first automobile powered by an internal combustion engine. The brand’s slogan is "The Best or Nothing".^[9]

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Daimler launches new corporate structure". www.daimler.com. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
2. ^ "Corporate governance". Mercedes-Benz AG. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
3. ^ "Mercedes-Benz posts eighth consecutive record year and maintains number 1 position in the premium segment". Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
4. ^ "About us". Mercedes-Benz AG. Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
5. ^ "AMG – The Company". Mercedes-AMG GmbH. Archived from the original on 1 June 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
6. ^ Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962]. Das Aussprachewörterbuch [The Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German) (7th ed.). Berlin: Dudenverlag. p. 595. ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4.
7. ^ Krech, Eva-Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz Christian (2009). Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch [German Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 738. ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
8. ^ Taylor, Edward; Tajitsu, Naomi; Hummel, Tassilo; Frost, Laurence (11 January 2019). "Volkswagen delivered 10.8 million vehicles in 2018, eyes world No.1 spot". Reuters. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
9. ^ "Best Global Brands – 2014 Rankings". Interbrand. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 26 March 2015.

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29 June 1987 – Vincent Van Gogh’s painting, the Le Pont de Trinquetaille, was bought for $20.4 million at an auction in London, England.

Vincent van Gogh

Dutch painter (1853–1890)

"Van Gogh" redirects here. For other uses, see Van Gogh (disambiguation) and Vincent van Gogh (disambiguation).

In this article, Dutch capitalization is used for tussenvoegsels in Dutch family names. The first letter in Van Gogh is capitalized unless it is preceded by a name, initial or title of nobility.

Vincent Willem van Gogh^{[note 1]} (Dutch: [ˈvɪnsɛnt ˈʋɪləɱ vɑŋ ˈɣɔx] ^ⓘ;^{[note 2]} 30 March 1853 – 29 July 1890) was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade, he created approximately 2,100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings, most of them in the last two years of his life. His oeuvre includes landscapes, still lifes, portraits, and self-portraits, most of which are characterised by bold colours and dramatic brushwork that contributed to the rise of expressionism in modern art. Van Gogh's work was only beginning to gain critical attention before he died from a self-inflicted gunshot at age 37.^[5] During his lifetime, only one of Van Gogh's paintings, The Red Vineyard, was sold.

Born into an upper-middle-class family, Van Gogh drew as a child and was serious, quiet and thoughtful, but showed signs of mental instability. As a young man, he worked as an art dealer, often travelling, but became depressed after he was transferred to London. He turned to religion and spent time as a missionary in southern Belgium. Later he drifted into ill-health and solitude. He was keenly aware of modernist trends in art and, while back with his parents, took up painting in 1881. His younger brother, Theodorus (known as "Theo"), supported him financially, and the two of them maintained a long correspondence.

Van Gogh's early works consist of mostly still lifes and depictions of peasant labourers. In 1886, he moved to Paris, where he met members of the artistic avant-garde, including Émile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, who were seeking new paths beyond Impressionism. Frustrated in Paris and inspired by a growing spirit of artistic change and collaboration, in February 1888 Van Gogh moved to Arles in southern France to establish an artistic retreat and commune. Once there, his paintings grew brighter and he turned his attention to the natural world, depicting local olive groves, wheat fields and sunflowers. Van Gogh invited Gauguin to join him in Arles and eagerly anticipated Gauguin's arrival in late 1888.

Van Gogh suffered from psychotic episodes and delusions. He worried about his mental stability, and often neglected his physical health, did not eat properly and drank heavily. His friendship with Gauguin ended after a confrontation with a razor when, in a rage, he mutilated his left ear. Van Gogh spent time in psychiatric hospitals, including a period at Saint-Rémy. After he discharged himself and moved to the Auberge Ravoux in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris, he came under the care of the homeopathic doctor Paul Gachet. His depression persisted, and on 29 July 1890 Van Gogh died from his injuries after shooting himself in the chest with a revolver.

Van Gogh's work began to attract critical artistic attention in the last year of his life. After his death, his art and life story captured public imagination as an emblem of misunderstood genius, due in large part to the efforts of his widowed sister-in-law Johanna van Gogh-Bonger.^[6][7] His bold use of colour, expressive line and thick application of paint inspired avant-garde artistic groups like the Fauves and German Expressionists in the early 20th century. Van Gogh's work gained widespread critical and commercial success in the following decades, and he has become a lasting icon of the romantic ideal of the tortured artist. Today, Van Gogh's works are among the world's most expensive paintings ever sold. His legacy is celebrated by the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, which holds the world's largest collection of his paintings and drawings.

Cite error: There are <ref group=note> tags on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=note}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ "BBC – Magazine Monitor: How to Say: Van Gogh". BBC. 22 January 2010. Archived from the original on 26 September 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
2. ^ Sweetman (1990), 7.
3. ^ Davies (2007), p. 83.
4. ^ Veltkamp, Paul. "Pronunciation of the Name 'Van Gogh'". vggallery.com. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015.
5. ^ Paintings, Authors: Department of European. "Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
6. ^ "The Woman Who Made Vincent van Gogh". The New York Times. 14 April 2021. Retrieved 12 September 2023.
7. ^ McQuillan (1989), 9.

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30 June 1997 – The United Kingdom transfers sovereignty over Hong Kong to China.

Handover of Hong Kong

1997 handover of Hong Kong from UK to China

The handover of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China was at midnight on 1 July 1997. This event ended 156 years of British rule in the former colony, which began in 1841.

Hong Kong was established as a special administrative region of China (SAR) for 27 years, maintaining its own economic and governing systems from those of mainland China during this time, although influence from the central government in Beijing increased after the passing of the Hong Kong national security law in 2020.^[1]

Hong Kong had been a colony of the British Empire since 1841, except for four years of Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945. After the First Opium War, its territory was expanded in 1860 with the addition of Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island, and in 1898, when Britain obtained a 99-year lease for the New Territories. The date of the handover in 1997 marked the end of this lease. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration had set the conditions under which Hong Kong was to be transferred, with China agreeing to maintain existing structures of government and economy under a principle of "one country, two systems" for a period of 50 years. Hong Kong became China's first special administrative region; it was followed by Macau after its transfer from Portugal in 1999 under similar arrangements.

With a 1997 population of about 6.5 million, Hong Kong constituted 97 percent of the total population of all British Dependent Territories at the time and was one of the United Kingdom's last significant colonial territories. Its handover marked the end of British colonial prestige in the Asia-Pacific region where it had never recovered from the Second World War, which included events such as the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse and the Fall of Singapore, as well as the subsequent Suez Crisis after the war. The transfer, which was marked by a handover ceremony attended by Charles III (then as Prince of Wales) and broadcast around the world, is often considered to mark the definitive end of the British Empire.

1. ^ Davidson, Helen (30 June 2021). "'They can't speak freely': Hong Kong a year after the national security law". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 August 2021.

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1 July 1979 – Sony introduces the Walkman.

Walkman

Series of portable media players by Sony

This article is about the Walkman brand. For information about the generic item, see Personal stereo. For the music album, see Walkman (album).

Walkman (Japanese: ウォークマン, Hepburn: Wōkuman) is a brand of portable audio players manufactured by Sony since 1979. It was originally introduced as a portable cassette player and later expanded to include a range of portable audio products. Since 2011, the brand has referred exclusively to digital flash memory players.

The Walkman became widely popular during the 1980s for its portable design and private listening experience. It influenced popular culture by promoting individualized music consumption and supporting activities such as aerobics. Its widespread use gave rise to the "Walkman effect," a term describing how portable music devices and headphones allow listeners to control their sonic environment. In 1986, "Walkman" was added to the Oxford English Dictionary, and in some markets the term became a genericized trademark for portable audio players.^[3] The Walkman also contributed to the widespread adoption of the Compact Cassette format, which surpassed vinyl record sales in 1983. Sony sold approximately 220 million cassette-based Walkman units before ending production in 2010.^[4]

Sony also achieved commercial success with its CD-based models (originally marketed as the Discman, later rebranded as the CD Walkman), and by 2010, cumulative sales of all Walkman devices had reached around 400 million units.^[4] However, despite extensive marketing efforts, MiniDisc Walkman devices remained a niche product. In the digital era, Sony was unable to replicate the brand’s earlier success, as Apple's iPod range gained widespread popularity and limited international Walkman sales.

The Walkman’s influence on consumer electronics has been compared to later devices such as mobile phones and personal computers.

1. ^ Haire, Meaghan (1 July 2009). "A Brief History of The Walkman". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
2. ^ "Sony Japan – タイムカプセル vol.20 そして、その名は世界共通語になった". Sony.
3. ^ Batey, Mark (2016), Brand Meaning: Meaning, Myth and Mystique in Today's Brands (Second ed.), Routledge, p. 140
4. ^ ^{a b} 株式会社インプレス (22 October 2010). "ソニー、カセット型ウォークマンの生産・販売終了". AV Watch (in Japanese). Retrieved 8 August 2023.

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2 July 1698 – Thomas Savery patents the first steam engine.

Steam engine

Engine that uses steam to perform mechanical work

For the railway engine, see Steam locomotive. For the steam turbine, see Steam turbine.

"Steam machine" and "Steam-powered" redirect here. For the video game distribution service, see Steam (service). For other uses, see Steam machine (disambiguation).

A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force can be transformed by a connecting rod and crank into rotational force for work. The term "steam engine" is most commonly applied to reciprocating engines as just described, although some authorities have also referred to the steam turbine and devices such as Hero's aeolipile as "steam engines". The essential feature of steam engines is that they are external combustion engines,^[1] where the working fluid is separated from the combustion products. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle. In general usage, the term steam engine can refer to either complete steam plants (including boilers etc.), such as railway steam locomotives and portable engines, or may refer to the piston or turbine machinery alone, as in the beam engine and stationary steam engine.

As noted, steam-driven devices such as the aeolipile were known in the first century AD, and there were a few other uses recorded in the 16th century. In 1606 Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont patented his invention of the first steam-powered water pump for draining mines.^[2] Thomas Savery is considered the inventor of the first commercially used steam powered device, a steam pump that used steam pressure operating directly on the water. The first commercially successful engine that could transmit continuous power to a machine was developed in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen. James Watt made a critical improvement in 1764, by removing spent steam to a separate vessel for condensation, greatly improving the amount of work obtained per unit of fuel consumed. By the 19th century, stationary steam engines powered the factories of the Industrial Revolution. Steam engines replaced sails for ships on paddle steamers, and steam locomotives operated on the railways.

Reciprocating piston type steam engines were the dominant source of power until the early 20th century. The efficiency of stationary steam engine increased dramatically until about 1922.^[3] The highest Rankine Cycle Efficiency of 91% and combined thermal efficiency of 31% was demonstrated and published in 1921 and 1928.^[4] Advances in the design of electric motors and internal combustion engines resulted in the gradual replacement of steam engines in commercial usage. Steam turbines replaced reciprocating engines in power generation, due to lower cost, higher operating speed, and higher efficiency.^[5] Note that small scale steam turbines are much less efficient than large ones.^[6]

As of 2023^[update], large reciprocating piston steam engines are still being manufactured in Germany.^[7]

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

1. ^ American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000.
2. ^ "Who Invented the Steam Engine?". Live Science. 19 March 2014.
3. ^ Mierisch, Robert Charles (May 2018). "The History and Future of High Efficiency Steam Engines" (PDF). EHA Magazine. 2 (8): 24–25 – via engineersaustralia.org.au.
4. ^ Gebhardt, G.F. (1928). Steam Power Plant Engineering (6th ed.). USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. p. 405.
5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wiser was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
6. ^ Green, Don (1997). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (7th ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill. pp. 29–24. ISBN 0-07-049841-5.
7. ^ "Spilling Products". www.spilling.de. 5 October 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2023.

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3 July 1863 – American Civil War: The final day of the Battle of Gettysburg culminates with Pickett's Charge.

Pickett's Charge

Confederate infantry assault during the Battle of Gettysburg in the American Civil War

For the book of that title, see George R. Stewart.

Pickett's Charge was an infantry assault on July 3, 1863, during the Battle of Gettysburg. It was ordered by Confederate General Robert E. Lee as part of his plan to break through Union lines and achieve a decisive victory in the North. The charge was named after Major General George Pickett, one of the Confederate Army's division commanders. The assault was aimed at the center of the Union Army's position on Cemetery Ridge, which was believed to be a vulnerable point in the Union defenses. As the Confederate troops marched across nearly a mile of open ground, they came under heavy artillery and rifle fire from entrenched Union forces. The open terrain offered little cover, making the Confederate soldiers easy targets, and their ranks were quickly decimated. Although a small number of the Confederate soldiers managed to reach the Union lines and engage in hand-to-hand combat, they were ultimately overwhelmed.

The charge ended in a disastrous defeat for the Confederates, with more than half of the men involved either killed, wounded, or captured. Pickett's Charge marked the climax of the Battle of Gettysburg, and its furthest advance is called the "high-water mark of the Confederacy". The failure of the charge crushed the Confederate Army's hopes of winning a decisive victory in the North and forced General Lee to retreat back to Virginia. The charge has often been mythologized in American narratives about the Civil War, especially in the South.

1. ^ U.S. War Dept., Official Records, Vol. 27/1, pp. 168–173, 193- General Return of Casualties in the Union forces, commanded by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, U. S. Army, at the battle of Gettysburg, July 1–3, 1863, pp.168-173
   - General Return of Casualties in the Union forces during the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3-August 1, 1863., pp. 193-194

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4 July 1827 – Slavery is abolished in the State of New York.

Slavery in the United States

This article is about slavery from the founding of the United States in 1776. For the colonial period, see Slavery in the colonial history of the United States. For modern illegal slavery, see Human trafficking in the United States. For modern legal forced labor, see Penal labor in the United States.

"Peculiar institution" redirects here. For the book, see The Peculiar Institution.

See also: Abolitionism in the United States

Whipping a slave, wood-engraving made 1834; Wilson Chinn, showing a slave collar and facial branding of the initials of his enslaver, Valsin B. Marmillion; slavery survivor Adam Crosswhite photographed 1878; Franklin & Armfield's slave jail in the District of Columbia, 1836; freedmen leaving South Carolina on the USS Vermont in 1862; Delia Garlic at age 100; 1818 Kentucky slave trader's ad; daguerreotype made at the 1850 Fugitive Slave Convention; White Gold in the Delta, painted 1939 by Beulah Bettersworth for the Indianola, Mississippi post office, mural destroyed 1960s

The legal institution of human chattel slavery, comprising the enslavement primarily of Africans and African Americans, was prevalent in the United States of America from its founding in 1776 until 1865, predominantly in the South. Slavery was established throughout European colonization in the Americas. From 1526, during the early colonial period, it was practiced in what became Britain's colonies, including the Thirteen Colonies that formed the United States. Under the law, children were born into slavery, and an enslaved person was treated as property that could be bought, sold, or given away. Slavery lasted in about half of U.S. states until abolition in 1865, and issues concerning slavery seeped into every aspect of national politics, economics, and social custom.^[1] In the decades after the end of Reconstruction in 1877, many of slavery's economic and social functions were continued through segregation, sharecropping, and convict leasing. Involuntary servitude as a punishment for crime remains legal.

By the time of the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the status of enslaved people had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry.^[2] During and immediately following the Revolution, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states and a movement developed to abolish slavery. The role of slavery under the United States Constitution (1789) was the most contentious issue during its drafting. The Three-Fifths Clause of the Constitution gave slave states disproportionate political power,^[3] while the Fugitive Slave Clause (Article IV, Section 2, Clause 3) provided that, if a slave escaped to another state, the other state could not prevent the return of the slave to the person claiming to be his or her owner. All Northern states had abolished slavery to some degree by 1805, sometimes with completion at a future date, and sometimes with an intermediary status of unpaid indentured servitude.

Abolition was in many cases a gradual process. Some slaveowners, primarily in the Upper South, freed their slaves, and charitable groups bought and freed others. The Atlantic slave trade began to be outlawed by individual states during the American Revolution and was banned by Congress in 1808. Nevertheless, smuggling was common thereafter,^[4][5] and the U.S. Revenue Cutter Service (Coast Guard) began to enforce the ban on the high seas.^[6] It has been estimated that before 1820 a majority of serving congressmen owned slaves, and that about 30 percent of congressmen who were born before 1840 (the last of which, Rebecca Latimer Felton, served in the 1920s) owned slaves at some time in their lives.^[7]

The rapid expansion of the cotton industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor, and the Southern states continued as slave societies. The U.S., divided into slave and free states, became ever more polarized over the issue of slavery. Driven by labor demands from new cotton plantations in the Deep South, the Upper South sold more than a million slaves who were taken to the Deep South. The total slave population in the South eventually reached four million.^{[8][page needed][9]} As the U.S. expanded, the Southern states attempted to extend slavery into the new Western territories to allow proslavery forces to maintain power in Congress. The new territories acquired by the Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican Cession were the subject of major political crises and compromises.^[10] Slavery was defended in the South as a "positive good", and the largest religious denominations split over the slavery issue into regional organizations of the North and South.

By 1850, the newly rich, cotton-growing South threatened to secede from the Union. Bloody fighting broke out over slavery in the Kansas Territory. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, slave states seceded to form the Confederacy. Shortly afterward, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the U.S. Army's Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. During the war some jurisdictions abolished slavery and, due to Union measures such as the Confiscation Acts and the Emancipation Proclamation, the war effectively ended slavery in most places. After the Union victory, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified on December 6, 1865, prohibiting "slavery [and] involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime."^[11]

1. ^ Abzug, Robert H. (1980). Passionate Liberator. Theodore Dwight Weld and the Dilemma of Reform. Oxford University Press. p. 87. ISBN 0-19-502771-X.
2. ^ Wood, Peter (2003). "The Birth of Race-Based Slavery". Slate. (May 19, 2015): Reprinted from Strange New Land: Africans in Colonial America by Peter H. Wood with permission from Oxford University Press. 1996, 2003.
3. ^ Douglass, Frederick (1849). "The Constitution and Slavery".
4. ^ Smith, Julia Floyd (1973). Slavery and Plantation Growth in Antebellum Florida, 1821–1860. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 44–46. ISBN 978-0-8130-0323-8.
5. ^ McDonough, Gary W. (1993). The Florida Negro. A Federal Writers' Project Legacy. University Press of Mississippi. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-87805-588-3.
6. ^ Chronology of U.S. Coast Guard history on the USCG official history website.
7. ^ Weil, Julie Zauzmer; Blanco, Adrian; Dominguez, Leo (January 10, 2022). "More than 1,700 congressmen once enslaved Black people. This is who they were, and how they shaped the nation". The Washington Post. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
8. ^ Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (1999). Africana: the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience. Internet Archive. New York : Basic Civitas Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00071-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
9. ^ Introduction – Social Aspects of the Civil War , National Park Service.
10. ^ "[I]n 1854, the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act ... overturned the policy of containment [of slavery] and effectively unlocked the gates of the Western territories (including both the old Louisiana Purchase lands and the Mexican Cession) to the legal expansion of slavery...." Guelzo, Allen C., Abraham Lincoln as a Man of Ideas, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press (2009), p. 80.
11. ^ "The 13th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution". National Constitution Center – The 13th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Retrieved March 1, 2022.

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5 July 1946 – Micheline Bernardini models the first modern bikini at a swimming pool in Paris.

Micheline Bernardini

French dancer (born 1927)

Micheline Bernardini (born 1 December 1927) is a French former nude dancer at the Casino de Paris who agreed to model, on 5 July 1946, Louis Réard's two-piece swimsuit, which he called the bikini, named four days after the first test of an American nuclear weapon at the Bikini Atoll.^[1]

1. ^ "Operation Crossroads: Fact Sheet". Department of the Navy – Naval History and Heritage Command. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2013.

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6 July 1964 – Malawi declares its independence from the United Kingdom.

Malawi

Country in Southeastern Africa

Not to be confused with Marawi, Mallawi, Mawlawi or Mali.

Malawi,^[a][9] officially the Republic of Malawi,^[b] is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast, and Mozambique to the east, south, and southwest. Malawi spans over 118,484 km² (45,747 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 21,240,689 (as of 2024).^[10] Lilongwe is its capital and largest city, while the next three largest cities are Blantyre, Mzuzu, and Zomba, the former capital.

The part of Africa known as Malawi was settled around the 10th century by the Akafula, also known as the Abathwa. Later, the Bantu groups came and drove out the Akafula and formed various kingdoms such as the Maravi and Nkhamanga kingdoms, among others that flourished from the 16th century.^[11][12] In 1891, the area was colonised by the British as the British Central African Protectorate, and it was renamed Nyasaland in 1907. In 1964, Nyasaland became an independent country as a Commonwealth realm under Prime Minister Hastings Banda, and was renamed Malawi. Two years later, Banda became president by converting the country into a one-party presidential republic. Banda was declared President for life in 1971. Independence was characterized by Banda's highly repressive dictatorship.^[13][14][15] After the introduction of a multiparty system in 1993, Banda lost the 1994 general election. Today, Malawi has a democratic, multi-party republic headed by an elected president. According to the 2024 V-Dem Democracy indices, Malawi is ranked 74th electoral democracy worldwide and 11th electoral democracy in Africa.^[16] The country maintains positive diplomatic relations with most countries, and participates in several international organisations, including the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the African Union (AU).

Malawi is one of the world's least-developed countries. The economy is heavily based on agriculture, and it has a largely rural and growing population. Key indicators of progress in the economy, education, and healthcare were seen in 2007 and 2008.

Malawi has a low life expectancy and high infant mortality. HIV/AIDS is highly prevalent, which both reduces the labour force and requires increased government expenditures. The country has a diverse population that includes native peoples, Asians, and Europeans. Several languages are spoken. The population is predominantly Christian and the majority are Protestant. Although in the past there was a periodic regional conflict fuelled in part by ethnic divisions, by 2008 this internal conflict had considerably diminished, and the idea of identifying with one's Malawian nationality had reemerged.

1. ^ "Malawi National Anthem Lyrics". National Anthem Lyrics. Lyrics on Demand. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference DHS 2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Malawi Population 2024". worldometers.info. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
4. ^ "2018 Population and Housing Census Main Report" (PDF). Malawi National Statistical Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 25 December 2019.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Malawi)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
6. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
7. ^ "HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023-24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. pp. 274–277.
8. ^ ^{a b} "Country profile: Malawi". BBC News. 13 March 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
9. ^ "Malawi: Maláui, Malaui, Malauí, Malavi ou Malávi?". DicionarioeGramatica.com.br. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
10. ^ "Malawi Population (2021)". worldometers.info. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
11. ^ Dalziel, Nigel; MacKenzie, John M, eds. (11 January 2016). "Maravi Kingdom". The Encyclopedia of Empire (1 ed.). Wiley. pp. 1–2. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe035. ISBN 978-1-118-44064-3.
12. ^ "Chakwera installs new Chikulamayembe King of Nkhamanga kingdom amid chaotic scenes - Malawi Nyasa Times - News from Malawi about Malawi". www.nyasatimes.com. 30 April 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2024.
13. ^ "Hastings Kamuzu Banda | president of Malawi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
14. ^ York, Geoffrey (20 May 2009). "The cult of Hastings Banda takes hold". The Globe and Mail.
15. ^ McCracken, John (1 April 1998). "Democracy and Nationalism in Historical Perspective: The Case of Malawi". African Affairs. 97 (387): 231–249. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007927 – via academic.oup.com.
16. ^ V-Dem Institute (2024). "The V-Dem Dataset". Retrieved 15 March 2024.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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6 July 1964 – Malawi declares its independence from the United Kingdom.

Malawi

Country in Southeastern Africa

Not to be confused with Marawi, Mallawi, Mawlawi or Mali.

Malawi,^[a][9] officially the Republic of Malawi,^[b] is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast, and Mozambique to the east, south, and southwest. Malawi spans over 118,484 km² (45,747 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 21,240,689 (as of 2024).^[10] Lilongwe is its capital and largest city, while the next three largest cities are Blantyre, Mzuzu, and Zomba, the former capital.

The part of Africa known as Malawi was settled around the 10th century by the Akafula, also known as the Abathwa. Later, the Bantu groups came and drove out the Akafula and formed various kingdoms such as the Maravi and Nkhamanga kingdoms, among others that flourished from the 16th century.^[11][12] In 1891, the area was colonised by the British as the British Central African Protectorate, and it was renamed Nyasaland in 1907. In 1964, Nyasaland became an independent country as a Commonwealth realm under Prime Minister Hastings Banda, and was renamed Malawi. Two years later, Banda became president by converting the country into a one-party presidential republic. Banda was declared President for life in 1971. Independence was characterized by Banda's highly repressive dictatorship.^[13][14][15] After the introduction of a multiparty system in 1993, Banda lost the 1994 general election. Today, Malawi has a democratic, multi-party republic headed by an elected president. According to the 2024 V-Dem Democracy indices, Malawi is ranked 74th electoral democracy worldwide and 11th electoral democracy in Africa.^[16] The country maintains positive diplomatic relations with most countries, and participates in several international organisations, including the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the African Union (AU).

Malawi is one of the world's least-developed countries. The economy is heavily based on agriculture, and it has a largely rural and growing population. Key indicators of progress in the economy, education, and healthcare were seen in 2007 and 2008.

Malawi has a low life expectancy and high infant mortality. HIV/AIDS is highly prevalent, which both reduces the labour force and requires increased government expenditures. The country has a diverse population that includes native peoples, Asians, and Europeans. Several languages are spoken. The population is predominantly Christian and the majority are Protestant. Although in the past there was a periodic regional conflict fuelled in part by ethnic divisions, by 2008 this internal conflict had considerably diminished, and the idea of identifying with one's Malawian nationality had reemerged.

1. ^ "Malawi National Anthem Lyrics". National Anthem Lyrics. Lyrics on Demand. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
2. ^ Cite error: The named reference DHS 2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
3. ^ "Malawi Population 2024". worldometers.info. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
4. ^ "2018 Population and Housing Census Main Report" (PDF). Malawi National Statistical Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2020. Retrieved 25 December 2019.
5. ^ ^{a b c d} "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Malawi)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
6. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
7. ^ "HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023-24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. pp. 274–277.
8. ^ ^{a b} "Country profile: Malawi". BBC News. 13 March 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
9. ^ "Malawi: Maláui, Malaui, Malauí, Malavi ou Malávi?". DicionarioeGramatica.com.br. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
10. ^ "Malawi Population (2021)". worldometers.info. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
11. ^ Dalziel, Nigel; MacKenzie, John M, eds. (11 January 2016). "Maravi Kingdom". The Encyclopedia of Empire (1 ed.). Wiley. pp. 1–2. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe035. ISBN 978-1-118-44064-3.
12. ^ "Chakwera installs new Chikulamayembe King of Nkhamanga kingdom amid chaotic scenes - Malawi Nyasa Times - News from Malawi about Malawi". www.nyasatimes.com. 30 April 2022. Retrieved 21 November 2024.
13. ^ "Hastings Kamuzu Banda | president of Malawi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
14. ^ York, Geoffrey (20 May 2009). "The cult of Hastings Banda takes hold". The Globe and Mail.
15. ^ McCracken, John (1 April 1998). "Democracy and Nationalism in Historical Perspective: The Case of Malawi". African Affairs. 97 (387): 231–249. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007927 – via academic.oup.com.
16. ^ V-Dem Institute (2024). "The V-Dem Dataset". Retrieved 15 March 2024.

Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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7 July 1916 – The New Zealand Labour Party was founded in Wellington.

New Zealand Labour Party

Centre-left political party in New Zealand

The New Zealand Labour Party, also known simply as Labour (Māori: Reipa),^[4] is a centre-left political party in New Zealand.^[5][6][7][8] The party's platform programme describes its founding principle as democratic socialism,^[9] while observers describe Labour as social democratic^[10][11] and pragmatic in practice.^[10][11] The party participates in the international Progressive Alliance.^[2] It is one of two major political parties in New Zealand, alongside its traditional rival, the National Party.

The New Zealand Labour Party formed in 1916 out of various socialist parties and trade unions. It is the country's oldest political party still in existence.^[12] Alongside the National Party, Labour has alternated in leading governments of New Zealand since the 1930s.^[13] As of 2020^[update], there have been six periods of Labour government under 11 Labour prime ministers. The party has traditionally been supported by the working classes, Māori, Pasifika, and has had strongholds in inner cities and the Māori seats for much of its existence.^[14] Labour won the party vote in 71 out of 72 electorates in the 2020 election, making it overwhelmingly the most successful political party of the MMP era.^[15][16]

The party first came to power under prime ministers Michael Joseph Savage and Peter Fraser from 1935 to 1949, when it established New Zealand's welfare state. It governed from 1957 to 1960, and again from 1972 to 1975. In 1974, prime minister Norman Kirk died in office, which contributed to a decline in party support. However, Labour won the popular vote in 1978 and 1981, with the first-past-the-post voting system preventing them from governing. Up to the 1980s, the party advocated a strong role for governments in economic and social matters. When it governed from 1984 to 1990, Labour's emergent neoliberal faction had a strong influence; the party broke precedent and transformed the economy from a protectionist one through extensive deregulation. As part of Rogernomics, Labour privatised state assets and greatly reduced the role of the state, causing a party split in 1989. Labour prime minister David Lange also introduced New Zealand's nuclear-free policy. After a significant defeat in the 1990 election, Labour's neoliberal faction would largely defect from the party and form ACT New Zealand. Labour again became the largest party from 1999 to 2008, when it governed in coalition with, or based on negotiated support from, several minor parties; Helen Clark became the first Labour prime minister to secure a third full term in office. Clark's government was marked by the creation of Kiwibank, a state-owned banking corporation; strong opposition to the Iraq War; and the foreshore and seabed controversy, which caused disillusioned Māori Labour MPs to split and create the Māori Party.

In the 2017 election the party, under Jacinda Ardern, returned to prominence with its best showing since the 2005 general election, winning 36.9% of the party vote and 46 seats.^[17] On 19 October 2017, Labour formed a minority coalition government with New Zealand First, with confidence and supply from the Green Party. In the 2020 general election, Labour won in a landslide, winning an overall majority of 10 and 50.01% of the vote.^[18] In the 2023 election, Labour lost its majority to the National Party and subsequently returned to Opposition.^[19] Since 2023^[update], Chris Hipkins serves as the party's leader, while Carmel Sepuloni is the deputy leader.

1. ^ Moir, Jo. "Labour appoints Rob Salmond as new general secretary". Radio New Zealand. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
2. ^ ^{a b} "Parties & Organisations". Progressive Alliance. Retrieved 30 November 2024.
3. ^ "Election 2023: 'In It For You', Chris Hipkins launches slogan for Labour 2023 campaign".
4. ^ "Reipa – Māori Dictionary". maoridictionary.co.nz. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
5. ^ Boston, Jonathan; et al. (2003). New Zealand Votes: The General Election of 2002. Victoria University Press. p. 358.
6. ^ "Voters' preexisting opinions shift to align with political party positions". Association for Psychological Science. 2 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018 – via Science Daily.
7. ^ Papillon, Martin; Turgeon, Luc; Wallner, Jennifer; White, Stephen (2014). Comparing Canada: Methods and Perspectives on Canadian Politics. UBC Press. p. 126. ISBN 9780774827867. Retrieved 30 August 2016. [...] [I]n New Zealand politics, by the centre-left Labour Party and the centre-right National Party [...].
8. ^ Khalil, Shaimaa (22 January 2023). "Chris Hipkins: Uphill battle looms for New Zealand's next PM". Wellington: BBC. Retrieved 22 January 2023. ...his centre-left Labour party.
9. ^ "New Zealand Labour Party Policy Platform" (PDF). New Zealand Labour Party. March 2016. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2017. The Labour Party's values are based on our founding principle of Democratic Socialism.
10. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Bean2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
11. ^ ^{a b} Cite error: The named reference Aimer was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
12. ^ Cite error: The named reference founded was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
13. ^ Miller 2005, pp. 32–33.
14. ^ "New Zealand – Political process | Britannica". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
15. ^ Schwartz, Matthew (17 October 2020). "New Zealand PM Ardern Wins Re-Election In Best Showing For Labour Party In Decades". NPR. Archived from the original on 17 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
16. ^ Shaw, Richard; Hayward, Bronwyn; Vowles, Jack; Curtin, Jennifer; MacDonald, Lindsey (17 October 2020). "Jacinda Ardern and Labour returned in a landslide – 5 experts on a historic New Zealand election". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
17. ^ "2017 General Election – Official Result". New Zealand Electoral Commission. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
18. ^ "New Zealand election: Jacinda Ardern's Labour Party scores landslide win". BBC News. 17 October 2020. Archived from the original on 17 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
19. ^ Corlett, Eva (14 October 2023). "New Zealand abandons Labour and shifts to the right as country votes for wholesale change". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.

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