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This day in .....

Discussion in 'Break Room' started by NewsBot, Apr 6, 2008.

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    5 June 1968 – Presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy is assassinated by Sirhan Sirhan.

    Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy

    On June 5, 1968, Robert F. Kennedy was shot by Sirhan Sirhan at the Ambassador Hotel in Los Angeles, California and pronounced dead the following day.

    Kennedy, a United States senator and a leading candidate in the 1968 Democratic Party presidential primaries, won the California and South Dakota primaries on June 4. He addressed his campaign supporters in the Ambassador Hotel's Embassy Ballroom. After leaving the podium, and exiting through a kitchen hallway, he was mortally wounded by multiple shots fired by Sirhan. Kennedy died at Good Samaritan Hospital nearly 25 hours later. His body was buried at Arlington National Cemetery.

    Sirhan, a Palestinian who held strong anti-Zionist and pro-Palestinian beliefs, testified in 1969 that he killed Kennedy "with 20 years of malice aforethought"; he was convicted and sentenced to death. Due to People v. Anderson, his sentence was commuted to life in prison in 1972 with a possibility of parole. His parole request has been denied numerous times.

    Kennedy's assassination prompted the Secret Service to protect presidential candidates. Additionally, it led to several conspiracy theories. It was the final of four major assassinations in the United States that occurred during the 1960s.[3]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    6 June 1964Rocket experiments at Cuxhaven are banned by the German authorities.

    Rocket experiments in the area of Cuxhaven

    Between 1933 and 1964 numerous rocket experiments were carried out in the area of Cuxhaven, Germany.

     
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    7 June 1977 – Five hundred million people watch the high day of the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II begin on television.

    Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II

    The Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II marked the 25th anniversary of the accession of Queen Elizabeth II on 6 February 1952. It was celebrated with large-scale parties and parades throughout the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth throughout 1977, culminating in June with the official "Jubilee Days", held to coincide with the Queen's Official Birthday. The anniversary date itself was commemorated in church services across the land on 6 February 1977, and continued to be for the rest of that month. In March, preparations started for large parties in every major city of the United Kingdom, as well as for smaller ones for countless individual streets throughout the country.

     
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    8 June 1949 – George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four is published.

    Nineteen Eighty-Four

    Nineteen Eighty-Four (also published as 1984) is a dystopian novel and cautionary tale by English writer George Orwell. It was published on 8 June 1949 by Secker & Warburg as Orwell's ninth and final book completed in his lifetime. Thematically, it centres on the consequences of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and repressive regimentation of people and behaviours within society.[3][4] Orwell, a democratic socialist, modelled the authoritarian state in the novel on the Soviet Union in the era of Stalinism and Nazi Germany.[5] More broadly, the novel examines the role of truth and facts within societies and the ways in which they can be manipulated.

    The story takes place in an imagined future in an unspecified year believed to be 1984, when much of the world is in perpetual war. Great Britain, now known as Airstrip One, has become a province of the totalitarian superstate Oceania, which is led by Big Brother, a dictatorial leader supported by an intense cult of personality manufactured by the Party's Thought Police. The Party engages in omnipresent government surveillance and, through the Ministry of Truth, historical negationism and constant propaganda to persecute individuality and independent thinking.[6]

    The protagonist, Winston Smith, is a diligent mid-level worker at the Ministry of Truth who secretly hates the Party and dreams of rebellion. Smith keeps a forbidden diary. He begins a relationship with a colleague, Julia, and they learn about a shadowy resistance group called the Brotherhood. However, their contact within the Brotherhood turns out to be a Party agent, and Smith and Julia are arrested. He is subjected to months of psychological manipulation and torture by the Ministry of Love and is released once he has come to love Big Brother.

    Nineteen Eighty-Four has become a classic literary example of political and dystopian fiction. It also popularised the term "Orwellian" as an adjective, with many terms used in the novel entering common usage, including "Big Brother", "doublethink", "Thought Police", "thoughtcrime", "Newspeak", and "2 + 2 = 5". Parallels have been drawn between the novel's subject matter and real life instances of totalitarianism, mass surveillance, and violations of freedom of expression among other themes.[7][8][9] Orwell described his book as a "satire",[10] and a display of the "perversions to which a centralised economy is liable," while also stating he believed "that something resembling it could arrive."[10] Time included the novel on its list of the 100 best English-language novels published from 1923 to 2005,[11] and it was placed on the Modern Library's 100 Best Novels list, reaching number 13 on the editors' list and number 6 on the readers' list.[12] In 2003, it was listed at number eight on The Big Read survey by the BBC.[13]

    1. ^ "Nineteen Eighty-Four". knowthyshelf.com. 13 August 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2024.
    2. ^ "Classify". OCLC. Archived from the original on 2 February 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
    3. ^ Murphy, Bruce (1996). Benét's reader's encyclopedia. New York: Harper Collins. p. 734. ISBN 978-0-06-181088-6. OCLC 35572906.
    4. ^ Aaronovitch, David (8 February 2013). "1984: George Orwell's road to dystopia". BBC News. Archived from the original on 24 January 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
    5. ^ Lynskey, Dorian. "George Orwell's 1984: Why it still matters". BBC News. Archived from the original on 12 October 2023. Retrieved 7 October 2023 – via YouTube.
    6. ^ Chernow, Barbara; Vallasi, George (1993). The Columbia Encyclopedia (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 2030. OCLC 334011745.
    7. ^ Crouch, Ian (11 June 2013). "So Are We Living in 1984?". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 10 September 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
    8. ^ Seaton, Jean. "Why Orwell's 1984 could be about now". BBC. Archived from the original on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
    9. ^ Leetaru, Kalev. "As Orwell's 1984 Turns 70 It Predicted Much of Today's Surveillance Society". Forbes. Archived from the original on 27 March 2023. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
    10. ^ a b "The savage satire of '1984' still speaks to us today". The Independent. 7 June 1999. Archived from the original on 7 January 2023. Retrieved 7 January 2023. Orwell said that his book was a satire – a warning certainly, but in the form of satire.
    11. ^ Grossman, Lev (8 January 2010). "Is 1984 one of the All-TIME 100 Best Novels?". Time. Archived from the original on 20 August 2017. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
    12. ^ "100 Best Novels « Modern Library". www.modernlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 2 October 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
    13. ^ "BBC – The Big Read – Top 100 Books". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 October 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2022.
     
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    9 June AD 53 – The Roman emperor Nero marries Claudia Octavia.

    Nero

    Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (/ˈnɪər/ NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in AD 68.

    Nero was born at Antium in AD 37, the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter of the emperor Augustus). When Nero was three his father died.[1] By the time Nero turned eleven,[2] his mother married Emperor Claudius, who then adopted Nero as his heir. Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne with the backing of the Praetorian Guard and the Senate. In the early years of his reign, Nero was advised and guided by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Seneca the Younger, and his praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, but sought to rule independently and rid himself of restraining influences. The power struggle between Nero and his mother reached its climax when he orchestrated her murder. Roman sources also implicate Nero in the deaths of both his wife Claudia Octavia – supposedly so he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and his stepbrother Britannicus.

    Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, trade, and culture. He ordered the construction of amphitheaters, and promoted athletic games and contests. He made public appearances as an actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which scandalized his aristocratic contemporaries as these occupations were usually the domain of slaves, public entertainers, and infamous persons. However, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among lower-class citizens. The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, and were much resented by the Roman aristocracy.

    During Nero's reign, the general Corbulo fought the Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, and made peace with the hostile Parthian Empire. The Roman general Suetonius Paulinus quashed a major revolt in Britain led by queen Boudica. The Bosporan Kingdom was briefly annexed to the empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. When the Roman senator Vindex rebelled, with support from the eventual Roman emperor Galba, Nero was declared a public enemy and condemned to death in absentia. He fled Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed suicide. His death sparked a brief period of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors.

    Most Roman sources offer overwhelmingly negative assessments of his personality and reign. Most contemporary sources describe him as tyrannical, self-indulgent, and debauched. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people thought him compulsive and corrupt. Suetonius tells that many Romans believed the Great Fire of Rome was instigated by Nero to clear land for his planned "Golden House". Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians as scapegoats for the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated not by public justice, but personal cruelty. Some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources on Nero's tyrannical acts, considering his popularity among the Roman commoners. In the eastern provinces of the Empire, a popular legend arose that Nero had not died and would return. After his death, at least three leaders of short-lived, failed rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular support.

    1. ^ Suetonius, Nero 6
    2. ^ "Julia Agrippina | Empress, Mother, Empress Nero | Britannica". January 2024.
     
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    10 June 1999Kosovo War: NATO suspends its airstrikes after Slobodan Milošević agrees to withdraw Serbian forces from Kosovo.

    Kosovo War

    The Kosovo War (Albanian: Lufta e Kosovës, Serbian: Косовски рат), was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from 28 February 1998 until 11 June 1999.[51][52][53] It was fought between the forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (i.e. Serbia and Montenegro), which controlled Kosovo before the war, and the Kosovo Albanian separatist militia known as the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). The conflict ended when the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened by beginning air strikes in March 1999 which resulted in Yugoslav forces withdrawing from Kosovo.

    The KLA was formed in the early 1990s to fight against the discrimination of ethnic Albanians and the repression of political dissent by the Serbian authorities, which started after the suppression of Kosovo's autonomy by Serbian leader Slobodan Milošević in 1989.[54] The KLA initiated its first campaign in 1995, after Kosovo's case was left out of the Dayton Agreement and it had become clear that President Rugova's strategy of peaceful resistance had failed to bring Kosovo into the international agenda.[55] In June 1996, the group claimed responsibility for acts of sabotage targeting Kosovo police stations, during the Kosovo Insurgency.[56][57] In 1997, the organisation acquired a large amount of arms through weapons smuggling from Albania, following a rebellion in which weapons were looted from the country's police and army posts. In early 1998, KLA attacks targeting Yugoslav authorities in Kosovo resulted in an increased presence of Serb paramilitaries and regular forces who subsequently began pursuing a campaign of retribution targeting KLA sympathisers and political opponents;[58] this campaign killed 1,500 to 2,000 civilians and KLA combatants, and had displaced 370,000 Kosovar Albanians by March 1999.[59][60]

    On 20 March 1999, Yugoslav forces began a massive campaign of repression and expulsions of Kosovar Albanians following the withdrawal of the OSCE Kosovo Verification Mission (KVM) and the failure of the proposed Rambouillet Agreement.[59][61] In response to this, NATO intervened with an aerial bombing campaign that began on March 24, justifying it as a "humanitarian war".[62] The war ended with the Kumanovo Agreement, signed on 9 June 1999, with Yugoslav and Serb forces[63] agreeing to withdraw from Kosovo to make way for an international presence. NATO forces entered Kosovo on June 12.[64][65] The NATO bombing campaign has remained controversial.[66] It did not gain the approval of the UN Security Council and it caused at least 488 Yugoslav civilian deaths,[67] including substantial numbers of Kosovar refugees.[68][69][70]

    In 2001 a U.N administered Supreme Court, based in Kosovo found that there had been "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments" against the Albanian population, but that Yugoslav troops had tried to force them out of Kosovo, but not to eradicate them, and therefore it was not genocide.[71] After the war, a list was compiled which documented that over 13,500 people were killed or went missing during the two year conflict.[72] The Yugoslav and Serb forces caused the displacement of between 1.2 million[73] and 1.45 million Kosovo Albanians.[74] After the war, around 200,000 Serbs, Romani, and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo and many of the remaining civilians were victims of abuse.[75][76][77]

    The Kosovo Liberation Army disbanded soon after the end of the war, with some of its members going on to fight for the UÇPMB in the Preševo Valley[78] and others joining the National Liberation Army (NLA) and Albanian National Army (ANA) during the armed ethnic conflict in Macedonia,[79] while others went on to form the Kosovo Police.[80]

    The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) convicted six Serb/Yugoslav officials and one Albanian commander for war crimes.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

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    2. ^ Daniszewski, John (14 April 1999). "Yugoslav Troops Said to Cross Into Albania". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    3. ^ Daly, Emma (14 April 1999). "War In The Balkans: Serbs enter Albania and burn village". The Independent. London. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    4. ^ "Hostage-Taking and Kidnapping Terror in the COE" (PDF). Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: US Army Training and Doctrine Command TRADOC G2. 5 December 2008 [15 September 2008] – via Federation of American Scientists.
    5. ^ "A Chronology of U.S.-Middle East Relations". WRMEA.
    6. ^ Noel, Sid (2005). From Power Sharing to Democracy: Post-Conflict Institutions in Ethnically Divided Societies. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-77357-310-9.
    7. ^ Ramet, Sabrina P.; Simkus, Albert; Listhaug, Ola, eds. (2015). Civic and Uncivic Values in Kosovo: History, Politics, and Value Transformation. Central European University Press. p. 121. ISBN 978-9-63386-074-8.
    8. ^ Stigler, Andrew L. "A clear victory for air power: NATO's empty threat to invade Kosovo." International Security 27.3 (2003): 124–157.
    9. ^ "Milosevic Claims Victory, Lauds Army". Washington Post. 11 June 1999.
    10. ^ Reitman, Valerie; Richter, Paul; Dahlburg, John-Thor (10 June 1999). "Yugoslav, NATO Generals Sign Peace Agreement for Kosovo / Alliance will end air campaign when Serbian troops pull out". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    11. ^ Vladisavljević, Nebojša (2012). "Kosovo and Two Dimensions of the Contemporary Serb-Albanian Conflict". In Hudson, Robert; Bowman, Glenn (eds.). After Yugoslavia: Identities and Politics Within the Successor States. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 29–30. doi:10.1057/9780230305137_3. ISBN 978-0230201316. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    12. ^ Wills, Siobhán (2009). Protecting Civilians: The Obligations of Peacekeepers. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. p. 219. ISBN 978-0-19-953387-9. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    13. ^ "Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo". Human Rights Watch. August 1999. Archived from the original on 13 November 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    14. ^ "The Violence: Ethnic Albanian Attacks on Serbs and Roma". Human Rights Watch. July 2004. Archived from the original on 12 July 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    15. ^ "Kosovo Crisis Update". UNHCR. 4 August 1999. Archived from the original on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    16. ^ "Forced Expulsion of Kosovo Roma, Ashkali and Egyptians from OSCE Participated state to Kosovo". OSCE. 6 October 2006. Archived from the original on 28 May 2022. Retrieved 12 December 2022.
    17. ^ Bartrop, Paul R. (18 January 2016). Bosnian Genocide: The Essential Reference Guide. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-4408-3869-9.
    18. ^ 12 mal bewertet (24 March 1999). "Die Bundeswehr zieht in den Krieg". 60xdeutschland.de. Archived from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 6 May 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
    19. ^ "Report to Congress: Kosovo operation allied force after-action report" (PDF). au.af.mil: 31–32. 30 January 2000. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 November 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2016.
    20. ^ a b c d e f "NATO Operation Allied Force". Defense.gov. Archived from the original on 28 February 2010. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    21. ^ "NATO Operation Allied Force". archive.wikiwix.com. Retrieved 4 January 2024.
    22. ^ "Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo - 3. Forces of the Conflict". hrw.org. Human Rights Watch.
    23. ^ "Fighting for a foreign land". BBC News. 20 May 1999. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    24. ^ "Russian volunteer's account of Kosovo". The Russia Journal. 5 July 1999. Archived from the original on 26 December 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    25. ^ Daalder & O'Hanlon 2000, p. 151.
    26. ^ a b c d e "Kosovo Memory Book Database Presentation and Evaluation" (PDF). Humanitarian Law Center. 4 February 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 6 February 2016.
    27. ^ "Two die in Apache crash". BBC News. 5 May 1999. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    28. ^ "How to Take Down an F-117". Strategypage.com. 21 November 2005. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    29. ^ "Holloman commander recalls being shot down in Serbia". F-16.net. 7 February 2007. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    30. ^ Cite error: The named reference ejection-history1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    31. ^ "F-117 damage said attributed to full moon". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. 6 May 1999. p. A14. Retrieved 20 February 2012.
    32. ^ "Nato loses two planes". BBC News. 2 May 1999. Retrieved 6 May 2012.
    33. ^ Kislyakov, Andrei (9 October 2007). "Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Increase In Numbers". Radardaily.com. RIA Novosti. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
    34. ^ "NATO nam ubio 1.008 vojnika i policajaca". Mondo. 11 February 2013. Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2013.
    35. ^ "Stradalo 1.008 vojnika i policajaca". www.rts.rs. RTS, Radio televizija Srbije, Radio Television of Serbia.
    36. ^ Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (2006). The Balkans: A Post-Communist History. Routledge. p. 558. ISBN 978-0-203-96911-3.
    37. ^ Chambers II, John Whiteclay (1999). The Oxford Companion to American Military History. Oxford University Press. p. 375. ISBN 978-0-19-507198-6.
    38. ^ Coopersmith, Jonathan; Launius, Roger D. (2003). Taking Off: A Century of Manned Flight. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-56347-610-5.
    39. ^ Cockburn, Andrew (3 April 2011). "The limits of air power". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 3 March 2013.
    40. ^ Macdonald 2007, p. 99.
    41. ^ Bacevich & Cohen 2001, p. 22.
    42. ^ https://srbin.info/drustvo/otkrivamo-ko-je-ubijeni-rusi-dobrovoljac-ciji-snimak-ubistva-su-objavili-albancivideo/
    43. ^ http://www.hlc-rdc.org/db/kkp_en/index.html
    44. ^ a b "Facts and Figurues – War in Europe". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 27 January 2015.
    45. ^ Judah, Tim (1997). The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (2009, 3rd ed.). New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-300-15826-7. Retrieved 3 January 2021 – via Google Books. the Serbian police began clearing ... people [who] were marched down to the station and deported... the UNCHR registered 848,000 people who had either been forcibly expelled or had fled
    46. ^ Kosovo/Kosova: As Seen. pp. Part III, Chap 14.
    47. ^ "UNHCR - Kosovo Fact Sheet 2019" (PDF). UNHCR.
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    49. ^ "Civilian Deaths in the NATO Air Campaign – The Crisis In Kosovo". HRW. Archived from the original on 19 April 2009. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
    50. ^ "754 Victims of NATO Bombing – Fond za humanitarno pravo/Humanitarian Law Center/Fondi për të Drejtën Humanitare | Fond za humanitarno pravo/Humanitarian Law Center/Fondi për të Drejtën Humanitare". www.hlc-rdc.org.
    51. ^ Boyle, Michael J. (2014). Violence After War: Explaining Instability in Post-Conflict States. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 175. ISBN 978-1421412573.
    52. ^ Independent International Commission on Kosovo (2000). The Kosovo Report (PDF). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0199243099.
    53. ^ Quackenbush, Stephen L. (2015). International Conflict: Logic and Evidence. Los Angeles: Sage. p. 202. ISBN 978-1452240985.
    54. ^ Reveron & Murer 2006, pp. 67–68.
    55. ^ Kubo, Keiichi (9 August 2010). "Why Kosovar Albanians Took Up Arms against the Serbian Regime: The Genesis and Expansion of the UÇK in Kosovo". Europe-Asia Studies. 62 (7): 1135–1152. doi:10.1080/09668136.2010.497022. ISSN 0966-8136. S2CID 154405255. Retrieved 7 September 2023.
    56. ^ "Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo – 2. Background". www.hrw.org. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
    57. ^ United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "Chronology for Kosovo Albanians in Yugoslavia". Refworld. Retrieved 7 August 2020.
    58. ^ Mincheva & Gurr 2013, pp. 27–28.
    59. ^ a b "Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo (March–June 1999)". Human Rights Watch. 12 June 1999. Retrieved 25 February 2013.
    60. ^ Judah (2009). The Serbs. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15826-7.
    61. ^ "A Review of NATO's War over Kosovo". chomsky.info.
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    64. ^ "Kosovo war chronology". Human Rights Watch.
    65. ^ "The Balkan wars: Reshaping the map of south-eastern Europe". The Economist. 9 November 2012. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
    66. ^ Haines, Steven (May 2009). "The Influence of Operation Allied Force on the Development of the jus ad bellum". International Affairs. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 85 (3): 477–490. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2346.2009.00809.x. ISSN 1468-2346. JSTOR 27695026.
    67. ^ "The Civilian Deaths". Civilian deaths in the NATO air campaign. Human Rights Watch. February 2000. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
    68. ^ "Case Studies of Civilian Deaths". Civilian deaths in the NATO air campaign. Human Rights Watch. February 2000. Archived from the original on 22 October 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
    69. ^ Massa, Anne-Sophie (2006). "NATO's Intervention in Kosovo and the Decision of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Not to Investigate". Berkeley Journal of International Law. 24 (2). Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 3 May 2015.
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    80. ^ Kosovo Liberation Army: the inside story of an insurgency, by Henry H. Perritt[page needed]
     
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    11 June 2012 – More than 80 people die in a landslide triggered by two earthquakes in Afghanistan; an entire village is buried.

    2012 Afghanistan earthquakes

    On 11 June 2012, two moderate earthquakes struck northern Afghanistan, causing a large landslide. The landslide buried the town of Sayi Hazara, trapping 71 people. After four days of digging, only five bodies were recovered and the search was called off.[3] Overall, 75 people were killed and 13 others were injured.[4]

    1. ^ ANSS. "Hindu Kush 2012a: M 5.4 - Hindu Kush region, Afghanistan". Comprehensive Catalog. U.S. Geological Survey.
    2. ^ ANSS. "Hindu Kush 2012b: M 5.7 - Hindu Kush region, Afghanistan". Comprehensive Catalog. U.S. Geological Survey.
    3. ^ "Afghans halt effort to recover bodies of 66 people killed in landslide from earthquake". Associated Press. 14 June 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference BNO was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    13 June 1996 – The Montana Freemen surrender after an 81-day standoff with FBI agents.

    Montana Freemen

    The Montana Freemen were an anti-government Christian Patriot militia based outside the town of Jordan, Montana, United States. The members of the group referred to their land as "Justus Township" and had declared their leaders and followers "sovereign citizens" no longer under the authority of any outside government. They became the center of public attention in 1996 when they engaged in a prolonged armed standoff with agents of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).

     
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    14 June 1982Falklands War: Argentine forces in the capital Stanley conditionally surrender to British forces.

    Falklands War

    The Falklands War (Spanish: Guerra de Malvinas) was a ten-week undeclared war between Argentina and the United Kingdom in 1982 over two British dependent territories in the South Atlantic: the Falkland Islands and its territorial dependency, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The conflict began on 2 April 1982, when Argentina invaded and occupied the Falkland Islands, followed by the invasion of South Georgia the next day. On 5 April, the British government dispatched a naval task force to engage the Argentine Navy and Air Force before making an amphibious assault on the islands. The conflict lasted 74 days and ended with an Argentine surrender on 14 June, returning the islands to British control. In total, 649 Argentine military personnel, 255 British military personnel, and three Falkland Islanders were killed during the hostilities.

    The conflict was a major episode in the protracted dispute over the territories' sovereignty. Argentina asserted (and maintains) that the islands are Argentine territory,[20] and the Argentine government thus characterised its military action as the reclamation of its own territory. The British government regarded the action as an invasion of a territory that had been a Crown colony since 1841. Falkland Islanders, who have inhabited the islands since the early 19th century, are predominantly descendants of British settlers, and strongly favour British sovereignty. Neither state officially declared war, although both governments declared the islands a war zone.

    The conflict had a strong effect in both countries and has been the subject of various books, articles, films, and songs. Patriotic sentiment ran high in Argentina, but the unfavourable outcome prompted large protests against the ruling military government, hastening its downfall and the democratisation of the country. In the United Kingdom, the Conservative government, bolstered by the successful outcome, was re-elected with an increased majority the following year. The cultural and political effect of the conflict has been less in the UK than in Argentina, where it has remained a common topic for discussion.[21]

    Diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Argentina were restored in 1989 following a meeting in Madrid, at which the two governments issued a joint statement.[22] No change in either country's position regarding the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands was made explicit. In 1994, Argentina adopted a new constitution,[23] which declared the Falkland Islands as part of one of its provinces by law.[24] However, the islands continue to operate as a self-governing British Overseas Territory.[25]

    1. ^ The ambiguous role of France in the Falklands/Malvinas War
    2. ^ a b An A-Z of the Falklands War
    3. ^ Portugal will authorize refueling in the Azores
    4. ^ Margaret Thatcher's thank you message to the President of Sierra Leone for allowing her ships to refuel in Freetown
    5. ^ Embargo of the EEC against Buenos Aires starts tomorrow
    6. ^ a b c Apoyo a Argentina del TIAR y voto de castigo contra Estados Unidos
    7. ^ The keys to the conflict between Great Britain and Argentina over the Falklands/Malvinas (in Spanish)
    8. ^ Falklands War cartoon
    9. ^ a b c d e Brasil apoyó el envío de armas a Argentina durante la guerra de las Malvinas
    10. ^ Israel armó y ayudó a la Argentina durante la Guerra
    11. ^ Gadafi conspiró para ayudar a Argentina en la guerra de las Malvinas
    12. ^ La historia de cómo se gestó el apoyo del Perú a Argentina en la Guerra de las Malvinas
    13. ^ Malvinas, documentos desclasificados: los partes de inteligencia del "amigo invisible" soviético y los satélites que "espiaron" a la flota británica
    14. ^ Cuba y la dictadura argentina en tiempos de Malvinas
    15. ^ La OEA, diplomáticamente a favor de Buenos Aires
    16. ^ Los No Alineados reconocen la soberanía argentina sobre las Malvinas
    17. ^ "Falkland Islands profile". BBC News. 5 November 2013. Archived from the original on 19 June 2014. Retrieved 19 June 2014.
    18. ^ Burns, John F. (5 January 2013). "Vitriol Over Falklands Resurfaces, as Do Old Arguments". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 8 August 2019.
    19. ^ a b Historia Marítima Argentina, Volume 10, p. 137. Departamento de Estudios Históricos Navales, Cuántica Editora, Argentina: 1993.
    20. ^ "Argentine to reaffirm Sovereignty Rights over The Falkland Islands". National Turk. 4 January 2012. Archived from the original on 7 July 2019. Retrieved 7 January 2012.
    21. ^ "Cómo evitar que Londres convierta a las Malvinas en un Estado independiente". Clarin. 1 April 2007. Archived from the original on 1 May 2010. Retrieved 7 February 2010.
    22. ^ "Joint statement of 19 October 1989: Re-establishing Consular Relations Between Britain and Argentina, and Agreeing a Framework on Sovereignty Which Would Allow Further Talks". Falklands info. Archived from the original on 17 May 2012. Retrieved 4 January 2013.
    23. ^ "Constitución Nacional". Argentine Senate (in Spanish). Archived from the original on 17 June 2004. La Nación Argentina ratifica su legítima e imprescriptible soberanía sobre las Islas Malvinas, Georgias del Sur y Sandwich del Sur y los espacios marítimos e insulares correspondientes, por ser parte integrante del territorio nacional.
    24. ^ "Argentina: Constitución de 1994". pdba.georgetown.edu. Archived from the original on 14 November 2020. Retrieved 3 August 2020.
    25. ^ Cahill 2010, "Falkland Islands".
     
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    15 June 1844Charles Goodyear receives a patent for vulcanization, a process to strengthen rubber.

    Charles Goodyear

    Charles Goodyear (December 29, 1800 – July 1, 1860) was an American self-taught chemist[1][2] and manufacturing engineer who developed vulcanized rubber, for which he received patent number 3633 from the United States Patent Office on June 15, 1844.[3]

    Goodyear is credited with inventing the chemical process to create and manufacture pliable, waterproof, moldable rubber.[4]

    Goodyear's discovery of the vulcanization process followed five years of searching for a more stable rubber and stumbling upon the effectiveness of heating after Thomas Hancock.[5] His discovery initiated decades of successful rubber manufacturing in the Lower Naugatuck Valley in Connecticut, as rubber was adopted to multiple applications, including footwear and tires. The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company is named after (though not founded by) him.

    1. ^ Zumdahl, Steven; Zumdahl, Susan (2014). Chemistry (Ninth ed.). Belmont, California: Brookes Cole/Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-133-61109-7. Retrieved October 25, 2014. However, in 1839 Charles Goodyear (1800–1860), an American chemist,…
    2. ^ Haven, Kendall; Berg, Roni (1999). The Science and Math Bookmark Book:300 Fascinating, Fact-Filled Bookmarks. Englewood, Colorado: Teacher Ideas Press/Libraries Unlimited, Inc. ISBN 1-56308-675-1. Retrieved October 25, 2014. Famous Scientists: Charles Goodyear, chemist.
    3. ^ "United States Patent Office" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 14, 2015.
    4. ^ Hosler, D. (18 June 1999). "Prehistoric Polymers: Rubber Processing in Ancient Mesoamerica". Science. 284 (5422): 1988–1991. doi:10.1126/science.284.5422.1988. PMID 10373117.
    5. ^ Slack, Charles (2003). Noble Obsession, 225, Hyperion. ISBN 0-7868-8856-3.
     
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    16 June 2016Shanghai Disneyland Park, the first Disney Park in Mainland China, opens to the public

    Shanghai Disneyland

    Shanghai Disneyland (Chinese: 上海迪士尼乐园; Pinyin: Shànghǎi díshìní lèyuán, Shanghainese: Zaon-he Diq-zy-nyi Loq-yoe) is a theme park located in Chuansha New Town, Pudong, Shanghai, China, that is part of the Shanghai Disney Resort. The park is operated by Disney Parks, Experiences and Products and Shanghai Shendi Group, through a joint venture between The Walt Disney Company and Shendi.[2] Construction began on April 8, 2011.[3][4] The park opened on June 16, 2016.[1] The park operated in its first half-year with a visitor attendance of 5.60 million guests.[5]

    The park covers an area of 3.9 square kilometres (1.5 sq mi), costing 24.5 billion RMB, with Shendi group holding 57% and Disney holding the remaining 43%. The park currently has eight themed areas: Mickey Avenue, Gardens of Imagination, Fantasyland, Treasure Cove, Adventure Isle, Tomorrowland, Toy Story Land, and Zootopia.

    1. ^ a b Smith, Thomas (January 12, 2016). "Opening Date Set for Shanghai Disney Resort, Disney's Newest World-Class Destination". DisneyParks Blog. Archived from the original on June 18, 2016. Retrieved January 12, 2016.
    2. ^ a b c d e Brzeski, Patrick (June 8, 2016). "Shanghai Disney Resort Finally Opens After 5 Years of Construction and $5.5B Spent". The Hollywood Reporter. Archived from the original on June 9, 2016. Retrieved June 9, 2016.
    3. ^ "Disneyland Shanghai to open 2016". The Independent. April 8, 2011. Archived from the original on November 19, 2014. Retrieved October 30, 2014.
    4. ^ "Disney and Partners Break Ground on Shanghai Disney Resort" (Press release). Shanghai Disneyland Press Room. April 8, 2011. Archived from the original on June 12, 2011. Retrieved May 26, 2011.
    5. ^ "TEA/AECOM 2016 Theme Index and Museum Index" (PDF). Themed Entertainment Association. 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 2, 2017. Retrieved June 6, 2017.
     
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    17 June 1972Watergate scandal: Five White House operatives are arrested for burgling the offices of the Democratic National Committee during an attempt by members of the administration of President Richard M. Nixon to illegally wiretap the political opposition as part of a broader campaign to subvert the democratic process

    Watergate scandal

    The Watergate scandal was a major political scandal in the United States involving the administration of President Richard Nixon from 1972 to 1974 that led to Nixon's resignation. The scandal stemmed from the Nixon administration's attempts to cover up its involvement in the June 17, 1972, break-in of the Democratic National Committee headquarters in Washington, D.C., at the Watergate Office Building.

    After the five perpetrators of the break-in were arrested, the press and the Department of Justice connected the cash found on them at the time to the Committee for the Re-Election of the President.[1][2] Further investigations, along with revelations during subsequent trials of the burglars, led the U.S. House of Representatives to grant the U.S. House Judiciary Committee additional investigative authority to probe into "certain matters within its jurisdiction",[3][4] and led the Senate to create the U.S. Senate Watergate Committee, which held hearings. Witnesses testified that Nixon had approved plans to cover up his administration's involvement in the burglary, and that there was a voice-activated taping system in the Oval Office.[5][6] Throughout the investigation, Nixon's administration resisted the probes, and this led to a constitutional crisis.[7] The Senate Watergate hearings were broadcast "gavel-to-gavel" nationwide by PBS and aroused public interest.[8]

    Several major revelations and egregious presidential actions obstructing the investigation later in 1973 prompted the House to commence an impeachment process against Nixon.[9] The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Nixon that Nixon had to turn over the Oval Office tapes to government investigators. The Nixon White House tapes revealed that he had conspired to cover up activities that took place after the burglary and had later tried to use federal officials to deflect attention from the investigation.[10][11] The House Judiciary Committee approved three articles of impeachment against Nixon for obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress. With his complicity in the cover-up made public upon release of the tapes, Nixon's political support completely eroded. His impeachment by the House and conviction by the Senate became a certainty,[a] and he resigned from office under Section 1 of the 25th Amendment on August 9, 1974.[12][13] He is the only U.S. president to have resigned from office. On September 8, 1974, his successor, Gerald Ford, pardoned him.

    There were 69 people indicted and 48 people—many of them top Nixon administration officials—convicted.[14] The metonym Watergate came to encompass an array of clandestine and often illegal activities undertaken by members of the Nixon administration, including bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom Nixon or his officials were suspicious; ordering investigations of activist groups and political figures; and using the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Central Intelligence Agency, and the Internal Revenue Service as political weapons.[15] The use of the suffix -gate after an identifying term has since become synonymous with public scandal,[16][17][18] especially in politics.[19][20]

    1. ^ Perry, James M. "Watergate Case Study". Class Syllabus for "Critical Issues in Journalism". Columbia School of Journalism, Columbia University. Archived from the original on July 15, 2019. Retrieved July 27, 2018.
    2. ^ Dickinson, William B.; Cross, Mercer; Polsky, Barry (1973). Watergate: chronology of a crisis. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Inc. pp. 8, 133, 140, 180, 188. ISBN 0-87187-059-2. OCLC 20974031.
    3. ^ Rybicki, Elizabeth; Greene, Michael (October 10, 2019). "The Impeachment Process in the House of Representatives". CRS Report for Congress. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress. pp. 5–7. R45769. Archived from the original on January 22, 2020. Retrieved November 7, 2019.
    4. ^ "H.Res.74 – 93rd Congress, 1st Session". congress.gov. February 28, 1973. Archived from the original on December 30, 2019. Retrieved October 21, 2019.
    5. ^ "A burglary turns into a constitutional crisis". CNN. June 16, 2004. Archived from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved November 7, 2019.
    6. ^ "Senate Hearings: Overview". fordlibrarymuseum.gov. Archived from the original on July 2, 2017. Retrieved November 7, 2019.
    7. ^ "A burglary turns into a constitutional crisis". CNN. June 16, 2004. Archived from the original on November 30, 2020. Retrieved May 13, 2014.
    8. ^ "'Gavel-to-Gavel': The Watergate Scandal and Public Television". American Archive of Public Broadcasting. Retrieved November 10, 2019.
    9. ^ Manheim, Karl; Solum, Lawrence B. (Spring 1999). "Nixon Articles of Impeachment". Impeachment Seminar. Archived from the original on March 3, 2017.
    10. ^ "The Smoking Gun Tape" (Transcript of the recording of a meeting between President Nixon and H. R. Haldeman). Watergate.info website. June 23, 1972. Archived from the original on May 1, 2012. Retrieved January 17, 2007.
    11. ^ White, Theodore Harold (1975). Breach of Faith: The Fall of Richard Nixon. New York: Atheneum Publishers. p. 7. ISBN 0-689-10658-0. OCLC 1370091.
    12. ^ White (1975), Breach of Faith, p. 29. "And the most punishing blow of all was to come in late afternoon when the President received, in his Oval Office, the Congressional leaders of his party—Barry Goldwater, Hugh Scott and John Rhodes. The accounts of all three men agree. Goldwater averred that there were not more than fifteen votes left in support of him in the Senate."
    13. ^ Dash, Samuel (1976). Chief Counsel: Inside the Ervin Committee – The Untold Story of Watergate. New York: Random House. pp. 259–260. ISBN 0-394-40853-5. OCLC 2388043. Soon Alexander Haig and James St. Clair learned of the existence of this tape and they were convinced that it would guarantee Nixon's impeachment in the House of Representatives and conviction in the Senate.
    14. ^ Cite error: The named reference convictions was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    15. ^ Ervin, Sam, et al., Final Report of the Watergate Committee.
    16. ^ Hamilton, Dagmar S. "The Nixon Impeachment and the Abuse of Presidential Power", In Watergate and Afterward: The Legacy of Richard M. Nixon. Leon Friedman and William F. Levantrosser, eds. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1992. ISBN 0-313-27781-8
    17. ^ Smith, Ronald D. and Richter, William Lee. Fascinating People and Astounding Events From American History. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 1993. ISBN 0-87436-693-3
    18. ^ Lull, James and Hinerman, Stephen. Media Scandals: Morality and Desire in the Popular Culture Marketplace. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-231-11165-7
    19. ^ Trahair, R.C.S. From Aristotelian to Reaganomics: A Dictionary of Eponyms With Biographies in the Social Sciences. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1994. ISBN 0-313-27961-6
    20. ^ "El 'valijagate' sigue dando disgustos a Cristina Fernández | Internacional". El País. November 4, 2008. Archived from the original on July 2, 2017. Retrieved July 28, 2014.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    18 June 1953 – The Egyptian revolution of 1952 ends with the overthrow of the Muhammad Ali dynasty and the declaration of the Republic of Egypt.

    Egyptian revolution of 1952

     
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    18 June 1953 – The Egyptian revolution of 1952 ends with the overthrow of the Muhammad Ali dynasty and the declaration of the Republic of Egypt.

    Egyptian revolution of 1952

     
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    19 June 2012WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange requested asylum in London's Ecuadorian Embassy for fear of extradition to the US after publication of previously classified documents including footage of civilian killings by the US army.

    Julian Assange

    Julian Paul Assange (/əˈsɑːnʒ/ ə-SAHNZH;[3] Hawkins; born 3 July 1971) is an Australian editor, publisher and activist who founded WikiLeaks in 2006. He came to wide international attention in 2010 when WikiLeaks published a series of leaks from US Army intelligence analyst Chelsea Manning:[4] footage of a US airstrike in Baghdad, US military logs from the Afghanistan and Iraq wars, and US diplomatic cables. Assange has won multiple awards for publishing and journalism.

    Assange was raised in several towns in Australia until his family settled in Melbourne in his mid-teens. He became involved in the hacker community and was convicted for hacking in 1996.[5][6][7] Following the establishment of WikiLeaks, Assange was its editor when it published the Bank Julius Baer documents, footage of the 2008 Tibetan unrest, and a report on political killings in Kenya with The Sunday Times.

    In November 2010, Sweden issued a European arrest warrant for Assange, for questioning in a Swedish investigation.[8] After losing his appeal against the warrant, he breached bail and took refuge in the Embassy of Ecuador in London in June 2012.[9] He was granted asylum by Ecuador in August 2012[10] on the grounds of political persecution and fears he might be extradited to the United States.[11] He stood for the Australian Senate in 2013 and launched the WikiLeaks Party but failed to win a seat.[12][13] Swedish prosecutors dropped the investigation in 2019.[14]

    On 11 April 2019, Assange's asylum was withdrawn following a series of disputes with Ecuadorian authorities.[15] The police were invited into the embassy and he was arrested.[16] He was found guilty of breaching the Bail Act and sentenced to 50 weeks in prison.[17] The U.S. government unsealed an indictment charging Assange with conspiracy to commit computer intrusion related to the leaks provided by Manning.[18] In May 2019 and June 2020, the U.S. government unsealed new indictments against Assange, charging him with violating the Espionage Act of 1917 and alleging he had conspired with hackers.[19][20][21] Assange has been incarcerated in HM Prison Belmarsh in London since April 2019, as the United States government's extradition effort is contested in the British courts.[22][23][24]

    1. ^ McGreal, Chris (5 April 2010). "Wikileaks reveals video showing US air crew shooting down Iraqi civilians". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
    2. ^ "WikiLeaks names one-time spokesman as editor-in-chief". Associated Press. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
    3. ^ "The Julian Assange Show: Cypherpunks Uncut (p.1)" on YouTube
    4. ^ "USA must drop charges against Julian Assange". Amnesty International. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
    5. ^ Lagan, Bernard (10 April 2010). "International man of mystery". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
    6. ^ Leigh, David; Harding, Luke Daniel (30 January 2011). "Julian Assange: the teen hacker who became insurgent in information war". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
    7. ^ "Julian Assange: the hacker who created WikiLeaks". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
    8. ^ "Wikileaks' Assange faces international arrest warrant". BBC News. 20 November 2010.
    9. ^ Bowater, Donna (20 June 2012). "Julian Assange faces re-arrest over breaching his bail condition by seeking asylum in Ecuador". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022.
    10. ^ Neuman, William; Ayala, Maggy (16 August 2012). "Ecuador Grants Asylum to Assange, Defying Britain". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
    11. ^ Wallace, Arturo (16 August 2012). "Julian Assange: Why Ecuador is offering asylum". BBC. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
    12. ^ Dorling, Philip (26 March 2012). "Assange: what I'll do in the Senate". The Age. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
    13. ^ "Julian Assange: WikiLeaks party will continue". The Guardian. 8 September 2013.
    14. ^ "Julian Assange: Sweden drops rape investigation". BBC. 19 November 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
    15. ^ Ma, Alexandra (14 April 2019). "Assange's arrest was designed to make sure he didn't press a mysterious panic button he said would bring dire consequences for Ecuador". Business Insider. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
    16. ^ "Police arrest Julian Assange at Ecuadorian Embassy in London". CNN. 11 April 2019. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
    17. ^ "Julian Assange jailed over bail breach". BBC News. 1 May 2019.
    18. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Charged in Computer Hacking Conspiracy". www.justice.gov. 11 April 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
    19. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Julian Assange Charged in 18-Count Superseding Indictment". www.justice.gov. 23 May 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
    20. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Charged in Superseding Indictment". www.justice.gov. 24 June 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
    21. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Julian Assange Accused of Conspiring With LulzSec and Anonymous Hackers". Time. 25 June 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
    22. ^ Rebaza, Claudia; Fox, Kara (4 January 2021). "UK judge denies US request to extradite Julian Assange". CNN. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
    23. ^ "UK judge denies bail for WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange". CNN. 6 January 2021. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
    24. ^ Doherty, Ben (9 June 2023). "Julian Assange 'dangerously close' to US extradition after losing latest legal appeal". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
     
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    19 June 2012WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange requested asylum in London's Ecuadorian Embassy for fear of extradition to the US after publication of previously classified documents including footage of civilian killings by the US army.

    Julian Assange

    Julian Paul Assange (/əˈsɑːnʒ/ ə-SAHNZH;[3] Hawkins; born 3 July 1971) is an Australian editor, publisher and activist who founded WikiLeaks in 2006. He came to wide international attention in 2010 when WikiLeaks published a series of leaks from US Army intelligence analyst Chelsea Manning:[4] footage of a US airstrike in Baghdad, US military logs from the Afghanistan and Iraq wars, and US diplomatic cables. Assange has won multiple awards for publishing and journalism.

    Assange was raised in several towns in Australia until his family settled in Melbourne in his mid-teens. He became involved in the hacker community and was convicted for hacking in 1996.[5][6][7] Following the establishment of WikiLeaks, Assange was its editor when it published the Bank Julius Baer documents, footage of the 2008 Tibetan unrest, and a report on political killings in Kenya with The Sunday Times.

    In November 2010, Sweden issued a European arrest warrant for Assange, for questioning in a Swedish investigation.[8] After losing his appeal against the warrant, he breached bail and took refuge in the Embassy of Ecuador in London in June 2012.[9] He was granted asylum by Ecuador in August 2012[10] on the grounds of political persecution and fears he might be extradited to the United States.[11] He stood for the Australian Senate in 2013 and launched the WikiLeaks Party but failed to win a seat.[12][13] Swedish prosecutors dropped the investigation in 2019.[14]

    On 11 April 2019, Assange's asylum was withdrawn following a series of disputes with Ecuadorian authorities.[15] The police were invited into the embassy and he was arrested.[16] He was found guilty of breaching the Bail Act and sentenced to 50 weeks in prison.[17] The U.S. government unsealed an indictment charging Assange with conspiracy to commit computer intrusion related to the leaks provided by Manning.[18] In May 2019 and June 2020, the U.S. government unsealed new indictments against Assange, charging him with violating the Espionage Act of 1917 and alleging he had conspired with hackers.[19][20][21] Assange has been incarcerated in HM Prison Belmarsh in London since April 2019, as the United States government's extradition effort is contested in the British courts.[22][23][24]

    1. ^ McGreal, Chris (5 April 2010). "Wikileaks reveals video showing US air crew shooting down Iraqi civilians". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 26 June 2011. Retrieved 15 December 2010.
    2. ^ "WikiLeaks names one-time spokesman as editor-in-chief". Associated Press. Retrieved 26 September 2018.
    3. ^ "The Julian Assange Show: Cypherpunks Uncut (p.1)" on YouTube
    4. ^ "USA must drop charges against Julian Assange". Amnesty International. Retrieved 21 February 2024.
    5. ^ Lagan, Bernard (10 April 2010). "International man of mystery". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
    6. ^ Leigh, David; Harding, Luke Daniel (30 January 2011). "Julian Assange: the teen hacker who became insurgent in information war". The Guardian. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
    7. ^ "Julian Assange: the hacker who created WikiLeaks". Christian Science Monitor. ISSN 0882-7729. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
    8. ^ "Wikileaks' Assange faces international arrest warrant". BBC News. 20 November 2010.
    9. ^ Bowater, Donna (20 June 2012). "Julian Assange faces re-arrest over breaching his bail condition by seeking asylum in Ecuador". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022.
    10. ^ Neuman, William; Ayala, Maggy (16 August 2012). "Ecuador Grants Asylum to Assange, Defying Britain". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 27 June 2021.
    11. ^ Wallace, Arturo (16 August 2012). "Julian Assange: Why Ecuador is offering asylum". BBC. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
    12. ^ Dorling, Philip (26 March 2012). "Assange: what I'll do in the Senate". The Age. Retrieved 9 October 2023.
    13. ^ "Julian Assange: WikiLeaks party will continue". The Guardian. 8 September 2013.
    14. ^ "Julian Assange: Sweden drops rape investigation". BBC. 19 November 2019. Retrieved 11 January 2022.
    15. ^ Ma, Alexandra (14 April 2019). "Assange's arrest was designed to make sure he didn't press a mysterious panic button he said would bring dire consequences for Ecuador". Business Insider. Retrieved 14 April 2019.
    16. ^ "Police arrest Julian Assange at Ecuadorian Embassy in London". CNN. 11 April 2019. Retrieved 11 April 2019.
    17. ^ "Julian Assange jailed over bail breach". BBC News. 1 May 2019.
    18. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Charged in Computer Hacking Conspiracy". www.justice.gov. 11 April 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
    19. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Julian Assange Charged in 18-Count Superseding Indictment". www.justice.gov. 23 May 2019. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
    20. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Charged in Superseding Indictment". www.justice.gov. 24 June 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
    21. ^ "WikiLeaks Founder Julian Assange Accused of Conspiring With LulzSec and Anonymous Hackers". Time. 25 June 2020. Retrieved 27 July 2023.
    22. ^ Rebaza, Claudia; Fox, Kara (4 January 2021). "UK judge denies US request to extradite Julian Assange". CNN. Retrieved 4 January 2021.
    23. ^ "UK judge denies bail for WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange". CNN. 6 January 2021. Retrieved 6 January 2021.
    24. ^ Doherty, Ben (9 June 2023). "Julian Assange 'dangerously close' to US extradition after losing latest legal appeal". The Guardian. Retrieved 10 June 2023.
     
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    20 June 1975 – The film Jaws is released in the United States, becoming the highest-grossing film of that time and starting the trend of films known as "summer blockbusters".

    Jaws (film)

    Jaws is a 1975 American thriller film directed by Steven Spielberg, based on the 1974 novel by Peter Benchley. It stars Roy Scheider as police chief Martin Brody, who, with the help of a marine biologist (Richard Dreyfuss) and a professional shark hunter (Robert Shaw), hunts a man-eating great white shark that attacks beachgoers at a summer resort town. Murray Hamilton plays the mayor, and Lorraine Gary portrays Brody's wife. The screenplay is credited to Benchley, who wrote the first drafts, and actor-writer Carl Gottlieb, who rewrote the script during principal photography.

    Shot mostly on location at Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts, Jaws was the first major motion picture to be shot on the ocean and consequently had a troubled production, going over budget and schedule. As the art department's mechanical sharks often malfunctioned, Spielberg decided to mostly suggest the shark's presence, employing an ominous and minimalist theme created by composer John Williams to indicate its impending appearances. Spielberg and others have compared this suggestive approach to that of director Alfred Hitchcock. Universal Pictures' release of the film to over 450 screens was an exceptionally wide release for a major studio picture at the time, and it was accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign that heavily emphasized television spots and tie-in merchandise.

    Regarded as a watershed moment in motion picture history, Jaws was the prototypical summer blockbuster and won several awards for its music and editing. It was the highest-grossing film of all time until the release of Star Wars two years later; both films were pivotal in establishing the modern Hollywood business model, which pursues high box-office returns from action and adventure films with simple high-concept premises, released during the summer in thousands of theaters and advertised heavily. Jaws was followed by three sequels (none of which involved Spielberg or Benchley) and many imitative thrillers. In 2001, the Library of Congress selected it for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

    1. ^ a b "Jaws (1975)". AFI Catalog of Feature Films. Archived from the original on March 26, 2019. Retrieved August 12, 2018.
    2. ^ "JAWS (A)". British Board of Film Classification. June 12, 1975. Archived from the original on January 30, 2016. Retrieved June 22, 2021.
     
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    21 June 1307Külüg Khan is enthroned as Khagan of the Mongols and Wuzong of the Yuan.

    Külüg Khan

    Külüg Khan (Mongolian: Хүлэг; Mongolian script: ᠬᠥᠯᠥᠭ; Chinese: 曲律汗), born Khayishan (Mongolian: Хайсан ᠬᠠᠶᠢᠰᠠᠩ; Chinese: 海山, Mongolian: Хайсан, meaning "wall"[note 1]), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Wuzong of Yuan (Chinese: 元武宗; pinyin: Yuán Wǔzōng; Wade–Giles: Wu-Tsung) (August 4, 1281 – January 27, 1311), was an emperor of the Yuan dynasty of China. Apart from Emperor of China, he is regarded as the seventh Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, although it was only nominal due to the division of the empire. His regnal name "Külüg Khan" means "warrior Khan" or "fine horse Khan" in the Mongolian language.
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    22 June 2000Wuhan Airlines Flight 343 is struck by lightning and crashes into Wuhan's Hanyang District, killing 49 people

    Wuhan Airlines Flight 343

    Location of Hubei in China

    Wuhan Airlines Flight 343 was a domestic scheduled passenger flight between Enshi Airport and Wuhan Tianhe International Airport, both in Hubei province, Central China. On June 22, 2000, the Wuhan Airlines Xian Y-7, registration B-3479, flying the route crashed after encountering an area of adverse weather; the aircraft was struck by lightning and encountered windshear.

    Immediately after the accident, China ordered all of Wuhan Airlines' Xian Y-7 aircraft be grounded. One month after the accident, they were allowed to resume service.

    The accident remains the deadliest involving a Xian Y-7 aircraft, and is today the 12th deadliest aviation accident in the history of China.[1]

    1. ^ a b c d e f Cite error: The named reference ASN was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    23 June 2017A series of terrorist attacks took place in Pakistan resulting in 96 deaths and wounded 200 others.

    June 2017 Pakistan attacks

    On 23 June 2017, a series of terrorist attacks took place in Pakistan resulting in 96 dead and over 200 wounded. They included a suicide bombing in Quetta targeting policemen, followed by a double bombing at a market in Parachinar, and the targeted killing of four policemen in Karachi.[1][2][3]

    Responsibility for the Quetta attack was claimed by Jamaat-ul-Ahrar and ISIL,[4] while no group accepted responsibility for the Parachinar attack.[5] According to the military, both attacks were coordinated from terrorist sanctuaries in Afghanistan.[6]

    1. ^ "Pakistan: Bombings in 2 cities kill at least 38". CNN. 23 June 2017. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
    2. ^ Cite error: The named reference DAWN3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference AlJazeera was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference ET1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference NYT was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Cite error: The named reference DAWN6 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    24 June 1995Rugby World Cup: South Africa defeats New Zealand and Nelson Mandela presents Francois Pienaar with the Webb Ellis Cup in an iconic post-apartheid moment.

    1995 Rugby World Cup

    The 1995 Rugby World Cup (Afrikaans: Rugbywêreldbeker 1995), was the third Rugby World Cup. It was hosted and won by South Africa, and was the first Rugby World Cup in which every match was held in one country.

    The World Cup was the first major sporting event to take place in South Africa following the end of apartheid. It was also the first World Cup in which South Africa was allowed to compete; the International Rugby Football Board (IRFB, now World Rugby) had only readmitted South Africa to international rugby in 1992, following negotiations to end apartheid. The World Cup was also the last major event of rugby union's amateur era; two months after the tournament, the IRFB opened the sport to professionalism.

    In the final, held at Ellis Park in Johannesburg on 24 June, South Africa defeated New Zealand 15–12, with Joel Stransky scoring a drop goal in extra time to win the match. Following South Africa's victory, Nelson Mandela, the President of South Africa, wearing a Springboks rugby shirt and cap, presented the Webb Ellis Cup to the South African captain François Pienaar.

     
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    25 June 1978 – The rainbow flag representing gay pride is flown for the first time during the San Francisco Gay Freedom Day Parade.

    Rainbow flag (LGBT)

    The Stonewall Inn in Greenwich Village, Manhattan, site of the June 1969 Stonewall riots, adorned with rainbow pride flags in 2016[1][2][3]

    The rainbow flag or pride flag is a symbol of LGBT pride and LGBT social movements. The colors reflect the diversity of the LGBT community and the spectrum of human sexuality and gender. Using a rainbow flag as a symbol of LGBT pride began in San Francisco, California, but eventually became common at LGBT rights events worldwide.

    Originally devised by the artists Gilbert Baker, Lynn Segerblom, James McNamara and other activists,[4][5][6][7] the design underwent several revisions after its debut in 1978, and continues to inspire variations. Although Baker's original rainbow flag had eight colors,[8][9] from 1979 to the present day the most common variant consists of six stripes: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. The flag is typically displayed horizontally, with the red stripe on top, as it would be in a natural rainbow.

    LGBT people and allies currently use rainbow flags and many rainbow-themed items and color schemes as an outward symbol of their identity or support. There are derivations of the rainbow flag that are used to focus attention on specific causes or groups within the community (e.g. transgender people, fighting the AIDS epidemic, inclusion of LGBT people of color). In addition to the rainbow, many other flags and symbols are used to communicate specific identities within the LGBT community.

    1. ^ Goicichea, Julia (August 16, 2017). "Why New York City Is a Major Destination for LGBT Travelers". The Culture Trip. Retrieved February 2, 2019.
    2. ^ Rosenberg, Eli (June 24, 2016). "Stonewall Inn Named National Monument, a First for the Gay Rights Movement". The New York Times. Retrieved June 25, 2016.
    3. ^ "Workforce Diversity The Stonewall Inn, National Historic Landmark National Register Number: 99000562". National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. Retrieved April 21, 2016.
    4. ^ "Long-Lost Fragment of First Rainbow Pride Flag Resurfaces After Four Decades".
    5. ^ "The Rainbow Flag: Lynn Segerblom & Lee Mentley". October 2, 2023.
    6. ^ "The woman behind the Rainbow Flag". March 3, 2018.
    7. ^ "HERSTORY – Meet Lynn Segerblom, One of the Creators of the Original 1978 Rainbow Flag - WeHo Times West Hollywood Daily News, Nightlife and Events". July 18, 2018.
    8. ^ "The Rainbow Flag". Retrieved May 29, 2021.
    9. ^ Gilbert Baker (October 18, 2007). "Pride-Flyin' Flag: Rainbow-flag founder marks 30-years anniversary". Metro Weekly. Retrieved March 13, 2008.
     
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    26 June 2008 – A suicide bomber dressed as an Iraqi policeman detonates an explosive vest, killing 25 people.

    2008 Karmah bombing

    The 26 June 2008 Karmah bombing was a suicide attack on a meeting of tribal sheiks in the town of Al-Karmah. Three Marines from 2nd Battalion 3rd Marines (including the battalion's commanding officer), as well as twenty Iraqi sheiks and the mayor of Karmah, were killed when a suicide bomber dressed as an Iraqi Policeman detonated an explosive vest. Two interpreters were also killed in the blast.[1][2] The aftermath of the attack was captured on film by photojournalist Zoriah Miller.[3] The commanding officer of 2/3, LtCol Max Galeai and two other Marines (Captain Philip J. Dykeman and Cpl. Marcus W. Preudhomme) from the battalion were killed.[4] In June 2008, it was announced that Anbar would be the tenth province to transfer to Provincial Iraqi Control, the first Sunni Arab region to be handed back. This handover was delayed due to the attack.[5][6] The handover did occur on September 1, 2008.[7] Two insurgents linked to the bombing were later caught in Tamariya.[6]

    1. ^ "Suicide bomber kills 3 Hawaii Marines - Battalion commander among suicide bomber's victims". 28 June 2008. Retrieved 28 June 2008.[permanent dead link]
    2. ^ "U.S. Department of Defense". U.S. Department of Defense. Archived from the original on 12 May 2020. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
    3. ^ "Anbar Province Suicide Bombing - Zoriah's Eyewitness Account - Iraq War Diary". ZORIAH - A PHOTOJOURNALIST AND WAR PHOTOGRAPHER'S BLOG. Archived from the original on 29 January 2023. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
    4. ^ Vorsino, Mary (28 June 2008). "Suicide bomber kills 3 Hawaii Marines - Battalion commander among suicide bomber's victims". The Honolulu Advertiser. Retrieved 28 June 2008.[permanent dead link]
    5. ^ Cocks, Tim (27 June 2008). "U.S. handover of Iraqi province delayed". Reuters. Archived from the original on 20 November 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2008.
    6. ^ a b Yacoub, Sameer (1 August 2008). "Insurgents linked to US Marine deaths caught". AP via Yahoo News. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 2 August 2008.
    7. ^ "US hands over key Iraq province". BBC News. 1 September 2008. Archived from the original on 30 September 2009. Retrieved 12 September 2008.
     
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    27 June 2013NASA launches the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph, a space probe to observe the Sun.

    Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph

    Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph (IRIS),[1] also called Explorer 94 and SMEX-12,[2] is a NASA solar observation satellite. The mission was funded through the Small Explorer program to investigate the physical conditions of the solar limb, particularly the interface region made up of the chromosphere and transition region. The spacecraft consists of a satellite bus and spectrometer built by the Lockheed Martin Solar and Astrophysics Laboratory (LMSAL), and a telescope provided by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO). IRIS is operated by LMSAL and NASA's Ames Research Center.

    The satellite's instrument is a high-frame-rate ultraviolet imaging spectrometer, providing one image per second at 0.3 arcsecond angular resolution and sub-ångström spectral resolution.

    NASA announced, on 19 June 2009, that IRIS was selected from six Small Explorer mission candidates for further study,[3] along with the Gravity and Extreme Magnetism (GEMS) space observatory.[4]

    1. ^ Cite error: The named reference Display was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    2. ^ "NASA's Explorer Program Satellites". NASA. 22 July 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2021. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference nasa20080529 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ Cite error: The named reference nasa20090619 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
     
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    28 June 1926Mercedes-Benz is formed by Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz merging their two companies.

    Mercedes-Benz

    Mercedes-Benz (German pronunciation: [mɛʁˌtseːdəs ˈbɛnts, -dɛs -] ),[6][7] commonly referred to as Mercedes and sometimes as Benz, is a German luxury and commercial vehicle automotive brand established in 1926. Mercedes-Benz AG (a Mercedes-Benz Group subsidiary established in 2019) is headquartered in Stuttgart, Baden-Württemberg, Germany.[1] Mercedes-Benz AG produces consumer luxury vehicles and light commercial vehicles badged as Mercedes-Benz. From November 2019 onwards, Mercedes-Benz-badged heavy commercial vehicles (trucks and buses) are managed by Daimler Truck, a former part of the Mercedes-Benz Group turned into an independent company in late 2021. In 2018, Mercedes-Benz was the largest brand of premium vehicles in the world, having sold 2.31 million passenger cars.[8]

    The brand's origins lie in Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft's 1901 Mercedes and Carl Benz's 1886 Benz Patent-Motorwagen, which is widely regarded as the first internal combustion engine in a self-propelled automobile. The slogan for the brand is "the Best or Nothing".[9]

    1. ^ a b c "Daimler launches new corporate structure". www.daimler.com. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
    2. ^ "Corporate governance". Mercedes-Benz AG. Archived from the original on 2 July 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
    3. ^ "Mercedes-Benz posts eighth consecutive record year and maintains number 1 position in the premium segment". Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2019.
    4. ^ "About us". Mercedes-Benz AG. Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
    5. ^ "AMG – The Company". Mercedes-AMG GmbH. Archived from the original on 1 June 2020. Retrieved 29 June 2020.
    6. ^ Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962]. Das Aussprachewörterbuch [The Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German) (7th ed.). Berlin: Dudenverlag. p. 595. ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4.
    7. ^ Krech, Eva-Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz Christian (2009). Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch [German Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. p. 738. ISBN 978-3-11-018202-6. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
    8. ^ Taylor, Edward; Tajitsu, Naomi; Hummel, Tassilo; Frost, Laurence (11 January 2019). "Volkswagen delivered 10.8 million vehicles in 2018, eyes world No.1 spot". Reuters. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 11 January 2019.
    9. ^ "Best Global Brands – 2014 Rankings". Interbrand. Archived from the original on 15 March 2015. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
     
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    29 June 1987Vincent Van Gogh’s painting, the Le Pont de Trinquetaille, was bought for $20.4 million at an auction in London, England.

    Vincent van Gogh

    Vincent Willem van Gogh (Dutch: [ˈvɪnsɛnt ˈʋɪləɱ‿vɑŋ‿ˈɣɔx] ;[note 1] 30 March 1853 – 29 July 1890) was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter who is among the most famous and influential figures in the history of Western art. In just over a decade, he created approximately 2100 artworks, including around 860 oil paintings, most of them in the last two years of his life. His oeuvre includes landscapes, still lifes, portraits, and self-portraits, most of which are characterized by bold colors and dramatic brushwork that contributed to the rise of expressionism in modern art. Van Gogh's work was beginning to gain critical attention before he died at age 37, by suicide.[5] During his lifetime, only one of Van Gogh's paintings, The Red Vineyard, was sold.

    Born into an upper-middle-class family, Van Gogh drew as a child and was serious, quiet and thoughtful, but showed signs of mental instability. As a young man, he worked as an art dealer, often travelling, but became depressed after he was transferred to London. He turned to religion and spent time as a missionary in southern Belgium. Later he drifted into ill-health and solitude. He was keenly aware of modernist trends in art and, while back with his parents, took up painting in 1881. His younger brother, Theo, supported him financially, and the two of them maintained a long correspondence.

    Van Gogh's early works consist of mostly still lifes and depictions of peasant laborers. In 1886, he moved to Paris, where he met members of the artistic avant-garde, including Émile Bernard and Paul Gauguin, who were seeking new paths beyond Impressionism. Frustrated in Paris and inspired by a growing spirit of artistic change and collaboration, in February 1888, Van Gogh moved to Arles in southern France to establish an artistic retreat and commune. Once there, Van Gogh's art changed. His paintings grew brighter and he turned his attention to the natural world, depicting local olive groves, wheat fields and sunflowers. Van Gogh invited Gauguin to join him in Arles and eagerly anticipated Gauguin's arrival in the fall of 1888.

    Van Gogh suffered from psychotic episodes and delusions. Though he worried about his mental stability, he often neglected his physical health, did not eat properly and drank heavily. His friendship with Gauguin ended after a confrontation with a razor when, in a rage, he severed his left ear. Van Gogh spent time in psychiatric hospitals, including a period at Saint-Rémy. After he discharged himself and moved to the Auberge Ravoux in Auvers-sur-Oise near Paris, he came under the care of the homeopathic doctor Paul Gachet. His depression persisted, and on 27 July 1890, Van Gogh is believed to have shot himself in the chest with a revolver, dying from his injuries two days later.

    Van Gogh's work began to attract critical artistic attention in the last year of his life. After his death, Van Gogh's art and life story captured public imagination as an emblem of misunderstood genius, due in large part to the efforts of his widowed sister-in-law Johanna van Gogh-Bonger.[6][7] His bold use of color, expressive line and thick application of paint inspired avant-garde artistic groups like the Fauves and German Expressionists in the early 20th century. Van Gogh's work gained widespread critical and commercial success in the following decades, and he has become a lasting icon of the romantic ideal of the tortured artist. Today, Van Gogh's works are among the world's most expensive paintings ever sold. His legacy is honored and celebrated by the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, which holds the world's largest collection of his paintings and drawings.

    1. ^ "BBC – Magazine Monitor: How to Say: Van Gogh". BBC. 22 January 2010. Archived from the original on 26 September 2016. Retrieved 10 September 2016.
    2. ^ Sweetman (1990), 7.
    3. ^ Davies (2007), p. 83.
    4. ^ Veltkamp, Paul. "Pronunciation of the Name 'Van Gogh'". vggallery.com. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015.
    5. ^ Paintings, Authors: Department of European. "Vincent van Gogh (1853–1890) | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History". The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 14 March 2024.
    6. ^ "The Woman Who Made Vincent van Gogh". The New York Times. 14 April 2021. Retrieved 12 September 2023.
    7. ^ McQuillan (1989), 9.


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    30 June 1997 – The United Kingdom transfers sovereignty over Hong Kong to China.

    Handover of Hong Kong

    The handover of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom to the People's Republic of China was at midnight on 1 July 1997. This event ended 156 years of British rule in the former colony, which began in 1841. Hong Kong was established as a special administrative region of China (SAR) for 50 years, maintaining its own economic and governing systems from those of mainland China during this time, although influence from the central government in Beijing increased after the passing of the Hong Kong national security law in 2020.[1]

    Hong Kong had been a colony of the British Empire since 1841, except for four years of Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945. After the First Opium War, its territory was expanded in 1860 with the addition of Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutters Island, and in 1898, when Britain obtained a 99-year lease for the New Territories. The date of the handover in 1997 marked the end of this lease. The 1984 Sino-British Joint Declaration had set the conditions under which Hong Kong was to be transferred, with China agreeing to maintain existing structures of government and economy under a principle of "one country, two systems" for a period of 50 years. Hong Kong became China's first special administrative region; it was followed by Macau after its transfer from Portugal in 1999 under similar arrangements.

    With a 1997 population of about 6.5 million, Hong Kong constituted 97 percent of the total population of all British Dependent Territories at the time and was one of the United Kingdom's last significant colonial territories. Its handover marked the end of British colonial prestige in the Asia-Pacific region where it had never recovered from the Second World War, which included events such as the sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse and the Fall of Singapore, as well as the subsequent Suez Crisis after the war. The transfer, which was marked by a handover ceremony attended by the then, Charles, Prince of Wales (now King Charles III) and broadcast around the world, is often considered to mark the definitive end of the British Empire.

    1. ^ Davidson, Helen (30 June 2021). "'They can't speak freely': Hong Kong a year after the national security law". The Guardian. Retrieved 28 August 2021.
     
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    1 July 1979Sony introduces the Walkman.

    Walkman

    Walkman, stylised as WALKMAN (ウォークマン), is a brand of portable audio players manufactured and marketed by Japanese company Sony since 1979. The original Walkman started out as a portable cassette player[3][4] and the brand was later extended to serve most of Sony's portable audio devices; since 2011 it consists exclusively of digital flash memory players. The current flagship product as of 2022 is the WM1ZM2 player.[5]

    Walkman cassette players were very popular during the 1980s, which led to "walkman" becoming an unofficial term for personal stereos of any producer or brand.[6] 220 million cassette-type Walkmen were sold by the end of production in 2010;[7] including digital Walkman devices such as DAT, MiniDisc, CD (originally Discman then renamed the CD Walkman) and memory-type media players,[8][9] it has sold approximately 400 million at this time.[7] The Walkman brand has also been applied to transistor radios, and Sony Ericsson mobile phones.

    1. ^ Haire, Meaghan (1 July 2009). "A Brief History of The Walkman". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
    2. ^ "Sony Japan – タイムカプセル vol.20 そして、その名は世界共通語になった". Sony.
    3. ^ Bull, Michael (2006). "Investigating the Culture of Mobile Listening: From Walkman to iPod". Consuming Music Together. Computer Supported Cooperative Work. 35: 131–149. doi:10.1007/1-4020-4097-0_7. ISBN 1-4020-4031-8.
    4. ^ Du Gay, Paul (1997). Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9780761954026.
    5. ^ "Sony Announces Two New Premium High-End Digital Audio Players". Forbes.
    6. ^ Batey, Mark (2016), Brand Meaning: Meaning, Myth and Mystique in Today's Brands (Second ed.), Routledge, p. 140
    7. ^ a b 株式会社インプレス (22 October 2010). "ソニー、カセット型ウォークマンの生産・販売終了". AV Watch (in Japanese). Retrieved 8 August 2023.
    8. ^ "Sony's modern take on the iconic Walkman". The Hindu BusinessLine. 18 March 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
    9. ^ "Sony History". Sony Electronics Inc. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
     
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    2 July 1698Thomas Savery patents the first steam engine.

    Steam engine

    A model of a beam engine featuring James Watt's parallel linkage for double action[a]
    A mill engine from Stott Park Bobbin Mill, Cumbria, England
    A steam locomotive from East Germany. This class of engine was built in 1942–1950 and operated until 1988.
    A steam ploughing engine by Kemna

    A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. The steam engine uses the force produced by steam pressure to push a piston back and forth inside a cylinder. This pushing force can be transformed, by a connecting rod and crank, into rotational force for work. The term "steam engine" is most commonly applied to reciprocating engines as just described, although some authorities have also referred to the steam turbine and devices such as Hero's aeolipile as "steam engines". The essential feature of steam engines is that they are external combustion engines,[1] where the working fluid is separated from the combustion products. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle. In general usage, the term steam engine can refer to either complete steam plants (including boilers etc.), such as railway steam locomotives and portable engines, or may refer to the piston or turbine machinery alone, as in the beam engine and stationary steam engine.

    As noted, steam-driven devices such as the aeolipile were known in the first century AD, and there were a few other uses recorded in the 16th century. In 1606 Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont patented his invention of the first steam-powered water pump for draining mines.[2] Thomas Savery is considered the inventor of the first commercially used steam powered device, a steam pump that used steam pressure operating directly on the water. The first commercially successful engine that could transmit continuous power to a machine was developed in 1712 by Thomas Newcomen. James Watt made a critical improvement in 1764, by removing spent steam to a separate vessel for condensation, greatly improving the amount of work obtained per unit of fuel consumed. By the 19th century, stationary steam engines powered the factories of the Industrial Revolution. Steam engines replaced sails for ships on paddle steamers, and steam locomotives operated on the railways.

    Reciprocating piston type steam engines were the dominant source of power until the early 20th century. The efficiency of stationary steam engine increased dramatically until about 1922.[3] The highest Rankine Cycle Efficiency of 91% and combined thermal efficiency of 31% was demonstrated and published in 1921 and 1928.[4] Advances in the design of electric motors and internal combustion engines resulted in the gradual replacement of steam engines in commercial usage. Steam turbines replaced reciprocating engines in power generation, due to lower cost, higher operating speed, and higher efficiency.[5] Note that small scale steam turbines are much less efficient than large ones.[6]

    Large reciprocating piston steam engines are still being manufactured in Germany.[7]


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

    1. ^ American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (4th ed.). Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000.
    2. ^ "Who Invented the Steam Engine?". Live Science. 19 March 2014.
    3. ^ Mierisch, Robert Charles (May 2018). "The History and Future of High Efficiency Steam Engines" (PDF). EHA Magazine. 2 (8): 24–25 – via engineersaustralia.org.au.
    4. ^ Gebhardt, G.F. (1928). Steam Power Plant Engineering (6th ed.). USA: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. p. 405.
    5. ^ Cite error: The named reference Wiser was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    6. ^ Green, Don (1997). Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook (7th ed.). USA: McGraw-Hill. pp. 29–24. ISBN 0-07-049841-5.
    7. ^ "Spilling Products". www.spilling.de. 5 October 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2023.
     
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    3 July 1863American Civil War: The final day of the Battle of Gettysburg culminates with Pickett's Charge.

    Pickett's Charge

    Pickett's Charge from a position on the Confederate line looking toward the Union lines, Ziegler's Grove on the left, clump of trees on right, painting by Edwin Forbes
    Map of Pickett's Charge, July 3, 1863
      Confederate
      Union
    Map of Pickett's Charge (details), July 3, 1863
      Confederate
      Union

    Pickett's Charge (July 3, 1863), also known as the Pickett–Pettigrew–Trimble Charge, was an infantry assault ordered by Confederate General Robert E. Lee against Major General George G. Meade's Union positions on the last day of the Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania during the Civil War. Confederate troops made a frontal assault toward the center of Union lines, ultimately being repulsed with heavy casualties. Suffering from a lack of preparation and problems from the onset, the attack was a costly mistake that decisively ended Lee's invasion of the north and forced a retreat back to Virginia.[2]

    The charge is popularly named after Major General George Pickett, one of three Confederate generals (all under the command of Lieutenant General James Longstreet) who led the assault.

    Pickett's Charge was part of Lee's "general plan"[3] to take Cemetery Hill and the network of roads it commanded. His military secretary, Armistead Lindsay Long, described Lee's thinking:

    There was ... a weak point ... where [Cemetery Ridge], sloping westward, formed the depression through which the Emmitsburg road passes. Perceiving that by forcing the Federal lines at that point and turning toward Cemetery Hill [Hays' Division] would be taken in flank and the remainder would be neutralized. ... Lee determined to attack at that point, and the execution was assigned to Longstreet.[4]

    Lee believed that, after Confederate attacks on both the left and right flanks of the Union lines on July 2, Meade would concentrate his defenses there to the detriment of his center. However, on the night of July 2, Meade correctly predicted to General John Gibbon, after a council of war, that Lee would attack the center of his lines the following morning and reinforced that area with additional soldiers and artillery.

    The infantry assault was preceded by a massive artillery bombardment that was meant to soften up the Union defense and silence its artillery, but it was largely ineffective. Approximately 12,500 men in nine infantry brigades advanced over open fields for three-quarters of a mile (1200 m) under heavy Union artillery and rifle fire. Although some Confederates were able to breach the low stone wall that shielded many of the Union defenders, they could not maintain their hold and were repelled with over 50 percent casualties.

    Often cited as one of the turning points of the war, the farthest point reached by the attack has been referred to as the high-water mark of the Confederacy.

    1. ^ U.S. War Dept., Official Records, Vol. 27/1, pp. 168–173, 193- General Return of Casualties in the Union forces, commanded by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, U. S. Army, at the battle of Gettysburg, July 1–3, 1863, pp.168-173
      - General Return of Casualties in the Union forces during the Gettysburg Campaign, June 3-August 1, 1863., pp. 193-194
    2. ^ Pfanz & Hartwig (1994), pp. 44–52.
    3. ^ U.S. War Dept., Official Records, Vol. 27/2, p. 320- Gettysburg Campaign Report of R. E. Lee, C. S. General, commanding Army of Northern Virginia, pp.313-325
    4. ^ Long & Wright (1887).
     
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    4 July 1827Slavery is abolished in the State of New York.

    Slavery in the United States

    Whipping a slave (etching made 1834), Peter's scourged back (1863), Thomas Satterwhite Noble's painting inspired by Margaret Garner, an interstate slave trade coffle from Virginia to Tennessee, Omar ibn Said (c. 1850), Dolly Johnson (c. 1861), "an overseer doing his duty" (1798), Dangerfield Newby (c. 1859), Caesar (c. 1851), ad for slave auction (1769)

    The legal institution of human chattel slavery, comprising the enslavement primarily of Africans and African Americans, was prevalent in the United States of America from its founding in 1776 until 1865, predominantly in the South. Slavery was established throughout European colonization in the Americas. From 1526, during the early colonial period, it was practiced in what became Britain's colonies, including the Thirteen Colonies that formed the United States. Under the law, an enslaved person was treated as property that could be bought, sold, or given away. Slavery lasted in about half of U.S. states until abolition in 1865, and issues concerning slavery seeped into every aspect of national politics, economics, and social custom.[1] In the decades after the end of Reconstruction in 1877, many of slavery's economic and social functions were continued through segregation, sharecropping, and convict leasing.

    By the time of the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), the status of enslaved people had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry.[2] During and immediately following the Revolution, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states and a movement developed to abolish slavery. The role of slavery under the United States Constitution (1789) was the most contentious issue during its drafting. Although the creators of the Constitution never used the word "slavery", the final document, through the Three-Fifths Clause, gave slave owners disproportionate political power by augmenting the congressional representation and the Electoral College votes of slaveholding states.[3] The Fugitive Slave Clause of the Constitution—Article IV, Section 2, Clause 3—provided that, if a slave escaped to another state, the other state had to return the slave to his or her master. This clause was implemented by the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793, passed by Congress. All Northern states had abolished slavery in some way by 1805; sometimes with completion at a future date, sometimes with an intermediary status of unpaid indentured servant. Abolition was in many cases a gradual process; a few hundred people were enslaved in the Northern states as late as the 1840 census. Some slaveowners, primarily in the Upper South, freed their slaves, and philanthropists and charitable groups bought and freed others. The Atlantic slave trade was outlawed by individual states beginning during the American Revolution. The import trade was banned by Congress in 1808, the earliest date the Constitution permitted (Article 1, Section 9), although smuggling was common thereafter.[4][5] It has been estimated that before 1820 a majority of serving congressmen owned slaves, and that about 30 percent of congressmen who were born before 1840 (some of whom served into the 20th century) at some time in their lives, were owners of slaves.[6]

    The rapid expansion of the cotton industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor, and the Southern states continued as slave societies. The United States, divided into slave and free states, became ever more polarized over the issue of slavery. Driven by labor demands from new cotton plantations in the Deep South, the Upper South sold more than a million slaves who were taken to the Deep South. The total slave population in the South eventually reached four million.[7][8] As the United States expanded, the Southern states attempted to extend slavery into the new Western territories to allow proslavery forces to maintain their power in Congress. The new territories acquired by the Louisiana Purchase and the Mexican Cession were the subject of major political crises and compromises.[9] By 1850, the newly rich, cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. Bloody fighting broke out over slavery in the Kansas Territory. Slavery was defended in the South as a "positive good", and the largest religious denominations split over the slavery issue into regional organizations of the North and South.

    An animation showing when United States territories and states forbade or allowed slavery, 1789–1861

    When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, seven slave states seceded to form the Confederacy. Shortly afterward, on April 12, 1861, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the U.S. Army's Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. Four additional slave states then joined the Confederacy after Lincoln, on April 15, called forth in response called up the militia to suppress the rebellion.[10] During the war some jurisdictions abolished slavery and, due to Union measures such as the Confiscation Acts and the Emancipation Proclamation, the war effectively ended slavery in most places. After the Union victory, the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was ratified on December 6, 1865, prohibiting "slavery [and] involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime."[11]

    1. ^ Abzug, Robert H. (1980). Passionate Liberator. Theodore Dwight Weld and the Dilemma of Reform. Oxford University Press. p. 87. ISBN 019502771X.
    2. ^ Wood, Peter (2003). "The Birth of Race-Based Slavery". Slate. (May 19, 2015): Reprinted from Strange New Land: Africans in Colonial America by Peter H. Wood with permission from Oxford University Press. 1996, 2003.
    3. ^ Douglass, Frederick (1849). "The Constitution and Slavery".
    4. ^ Smith, Julia Floyd (1973). Slavery and Plantation Growth in Antebellum Florida, 1821–1860. Gainesville: University of Florida Press. pp. 44–46. ISBN 978-0813003238.
    5. ^ McDonough, Gary W. (1993). The Florida Negro. A Federal Writers' Project Legacy. University Press of Mississippi. p. 7. ISBN 978-0878055883.
    6. ^ Weil, Julie Zauzmer; Blanco, Adrian; Dominguez, Leo (January 10, 2022). "More than 1,700 congressmen once enslaved Black people. This is who they were, and how they shaped the nation". The Washington Post. Retrieved January 11, 2022.
    7. ^ Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (1999). Africana : the encyclopedia of the African and African American experience. Internet Archive. New York : Basic Civitas Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00071-5.
    8. ^ Introduction – Social Aspects of the Civil War Archived July 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, National Park Service.
    9. ^ "[I]n 1854, the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act ... overturned the policy of containment [of slavery] and effectively unlocked the gates of the Western territories (including both the old Louisiana Purchase lands and the Mexican Cession) to the legal expansion of slavery...." Guelzo, Allen C., Abraham Lincoln as a Man of Ideas, Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press (2009), p. 80.
    10. ^ "A Proclamation by the President of the United States, April 15, 1861". U.S. Capitol Visitor Center.
    11. ^ "The 13th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution". National Constitution Center – The 13th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. Retrieved March 1, 2022.
     
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    5 July 1946Micheline Bernardini models the first modern bikini at a swimming pool in Paris.

    Micheline Bernardini

    Micheline Bernardini (born 1 December 1927) is a French former nude dancer at the Casino de Paris who agreed to model, on 5 July 1946, Louis Réard's two-piece swimsuit, which he called the bikini, named four days after the first test of an American nuclear weapon at the Bikini Atoll.[1]

    1. ^ "Operation Crossroads: Fact Sheet". Department of the Navy—Naval History and Heritage Command. Archived from the original on 24 October 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2013.
     
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    6 July 1964Malawi declares its independence from the United Kingdom.

    Malawi

    Various scenes around the country, 2018

    Malawi,[a] officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast, and Mozambique to the east, south and southwest. Malawi spans over 118,484 km2 (45,747 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 19,431,566 (as of January 2021).[11] Malawi's capital and largest city is Lilongwe. Its second-largest is Blantyre, its third-largest is Mzuzu and its fourth-largest is its former capital, Zomba. It was the first capital city of Malawi before being changed to Lilongwe.

    The part of Africa now known as Malawi was settled around the 10th century by migrating Bantu groups.[citation needed] Centuries later, in 1891, the area was colonised by the British as the British Central African Protectorate, and it was renamed as Nyasaland in 1907. In 1953, it became a protectorate within the semi-independent Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The Federation was dissolved in 1963. In 1964, the protectorate was ended: Nyasaland became an independent country as a Commonwealth realm under Prime Minister Hastings Banda, and was renamed Malawi. Two years later, Banda became president by converting the country into a one-party presidential republic. Declared President for life in 1971, Malawi's next few decades of independence were characterized by Banda's highly repressive dictatorship.[12][13][14] Following the introduction of a multiparty system in 1993, Banda was defeated in the 1994 general election. Today, Malawi has a democratic, multi-party republic headed by an elected president and has continued to experience peaceful transitions of power. According to the 2024 V-Dem Democracy indices Malawi is ranked 74th electoral democracy worldwide and 11th electoral democracy in Africa.[15] The country's military, the Malawian Defence Force, includes an army, a navy, and an air wing. Malawi's foreign policy is pro-Western. It maintains positive diplomatic relations with most countries, and participates in several international organisations, including the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the African Union (AU).

    Malawi is one of the world's least-developed countries. The economy is heavily based on agriculture, and it has a largely rural and rapidly growing population. The Malawian government depends heavily on outside aid to meet its development needs, although the amount needed (and the aid offered) has decreased since 2000. The Malawian government faces challenges in its efforts to build and expand the economy, to improve education, healthcare, and environmental protection, and to become financially independent despite widespread unemployment. Since 2005, Malawi has developed several policies that focus on addressing these issues, and the country's outlook appears to be improving: key indicators of progress in the economy, education, and healthcare were seen in 2007 and 2008.

    Malawi has a low life expectancy and high infant mortality. HIV/AIDS is highly prevalent, which both reduces the labour force and requires increased government expenditures. The country has a diverse population that includes native peoples, Asians, and Europeans. Several languages are spoken, and there is an array of religious beliefs. Although in the past there was a periodic regional conflict fuelled in part by ethnic divisions, by 2008 this internal conflict had considerably diminished, and the idea of identifying with one's Malawian nationality had reemerged.

    1. ^ "Malawi National Anthem Lyrics". National Anthem Lyrics. Lyrics on Demand. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
    2. ^ a b "2018 Population and Housing Census Main Report" (PDF). Malawi National Statistical Office. Retrieved 25 December 2019.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference DHS 2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Malawi Population 2024". worldometers.info. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
    5. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Malawi)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
    6. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
    7. ^ Human Development Report 2021 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2021. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
    8. ^ a b "Country profile: Malawi". BBC News. 13 March 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
    9. ^ Carrington, Daisy; Cohen, Lisa (8 August 2014). "Five reasons to visit Malawi now". CNN.
    10. ^ "Malawi: Maláui, Malaui, Malauí, Malavi ou Malávi?". DicionarioeGramatica.com.br. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
    11. ^ "Malawi Population (2021)". worldometers.info. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
    12. ^ "Hastings Kamuzu Banda | president of Malawi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
    13. ^ York, Geoffrey (20 May 2009). "The cult of Hastings Banda takes hold". The Globe and Mail.
    14. ^ McCracken, John (1 April 1998). "Democracy and Nationalism in Historical Perspective: The Case of Malawi". African Affairs. 97 (387): 231–249. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007927 – via academic.oup.com.
    15. ^ V-Dem Institute (2024). "The V-Dem Dataset". Retrieved 15 March 2024.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    6 July 1964Malawi declares its independence from the United Kingdom.

    Malawi

    Various scenes around the country, 2018

    Malawi,[a] officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast, and Mozambique to the east, south and southwest. Malawi spans over 118,484 km2 (45,747 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 19,431,566 (as of January 2021).[11] Malawi's capital and largest city is Lilongwe. Its second-largest is Blantyre, its third-largest is Mzuzu and its fourth-largest is its former capital, Zomba. It was the first capital city of Malawi before being changed to Lilongwe.

    The part of Africa now known as Malawi was settled around the 10th century by migrating Bantu groups.[citation needed] Centuries later, in 1891, the area was colonised by the British as the British Central African Protectorate, and it was renamed as Nyasaland in 1907. In 1953, it became a protectorate within the semi-independent Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The Federation was dissolved in 1963. In 1964, the protectorate was ended: Nyasaland became an independent country as a Commonwealth realm under Prime Minister Hastings Banda, and was renamed Malawi. Two years later, Banda became president by converting the country into a one-party presidential republic. Declared President for life in 1971, Malawi's next few decades of independence were characterized by Banda's highly repressive dictatorship.[12][13][14] Following the introduction of a multiparty system in 1993, Banda was defeated in the 1994 general election. Today, Malawi has a democratic, multi-party republic headed by an elected president and has continued to experience peaceful transitions of power. According to the 2024 V-Dem Democracy indices Malawi is ranked 74th electoral democracy worldwide and 11th electoral democracy in Africa.[15] The country's military, the Malawian Defence Force, includes an army, a navy, and an air wing. Malawi's foreign policy is pro-Western. It maintains positive diplomatic relations with most countries, and participates in several international organisations, including the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), and the African Union (AU).

    Malawi is one of the world's least-developed countries. The economy is heavily based on agriculture, and it has a largely rural and rapidly growing population. The Malawian government depends heavily on outside aid to meet its development needs, although the amount needed (and the aid offered) has decreased since 2000. The Malawian government faces challenges in its efforts to build and expand the economy, to improve education, healthcare, and environmental protection, and to become financially independent despite widespread unemployment. Since 2005, Malawi has developed several policies that focus on addressing these issues, and the country's outlook appears to be improving: key indicators of progress in the economy, education, and healthcare were seen in 2007 and 2008.

    Malawi has a low life expectancy and high infant mortality. HIV/AIDS is highly prevalent, which both reduces the labour force and requires increased government expenditures. The country has a diverse population that includes native peoples, Asians, and Europeans. Several languages are spoken, and there is an array of religious beliefs. Although in the past there was a periodic regional conflict fuelled in part by ethnic divisions, by 2008 this internal conflict had considerably diminished, and the idea of identifying with one's Malawian nationality had reemerged.

    1. ^ "Malawi National Anthem Lyrics". National Anthem Lyrics. Lyrics on Demand. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
    2. ^ a b "2018 Population and Housing Census Main Report" (PDF). Malawi National Statistical Office. Retrieved 25 December 2019.
    3. ^ Cite error: The named reference DHS 2016 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    4. ^ "Malawi Population 2024". worldometers.info. Retrieved 25 January 2024.
    5. ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023 Edition. (Malawi)". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. 10 October 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2023.
    6. ^ "Gini Index". World Bank. Retrieved 23 June 2021.
    7. ^ Human Development Report 2021 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2021. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
    8. ^ a b "Country profile: Malawi". BBC News. 13 March 2008. Retrieved 17 August 2008.
    9. ^ Carrington, Daisy; Cohen, Lisa (8 August 2014). "Five reasons to visit Malawi now". CNN.
    10. ^ "Malawi: Maláui, Malaui, Malauí, Malavi ou Malávi?". DicionarioeGramatica.com.br. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
    11. ^ "Malawi Population (2021)". worldometers.info. Retrieved 31 January 2021.
    12. ^ "Hastings Kamuzu Banda | president of Malawi". Encyclopedia Britannica.
    13. ^ York, Geoffrey (20 May 2009). "The cult of Hastings Banda takes hold". The Globe and Mail.
    14. ^ McCracken, John (1 April 1998). "Democracy and Nationalism in Historical Perspective: The Case of Malawi". African Affairs. 97 (387): 231–249. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a007927 – via academic.oup.com.
    15. ^ V-Dem Institute (2024). "The V-Dem Dataset". Retrieved 15 March 2024.


    Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

     
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    7 July 1916 – The New Zealand Labour Party was founded in Wellington.

    New Zealand Labour Party

    The New Zealand Labour Party, also known simply as Labour (Māori: Reipa[4]), is a centre-left political party in New Zealand.[5][6][7][8] The party's platform programme describes its founding principle as democratic socialism,[9] while observers describe Labour as social-democratic[10][11] and pragmatic in practice.[10][11] The party participates in the international Progressive Alliance.[2] It is one of two major political parties in New Zealand, alongside its traditional rival, the National Party.

    The New Zealand Labour Party formed in 1916 out of various socialist parties and trade unions. It is the country's oldest political party still in existence.[12] Alongside the National Party, Labour has alternated in leading governments of New Zealand since the 1930s.[13] As of 2020, there have been six periods of Labour government under 11 Labour prime ministers. The party has traditionally been supported by working class, urban, Māori, Pasifika, immigrant and trade unionist New Zealanders, and has had strongholds in inner cities and the Māori seats for much of its existence.[14] The party is currently strongest in Wellington, Palmerston North and Hamilton, where it won all of the electorates in 2020. Labour also won the party vote in 71 out of 72 electorates in that election, making it overwhelmingly the most successful political party of the MMP era.[15][16]

    The party first came to power under prime ministers Michael Joseph Savage and Peter Fraser from 1935 to 1949, when it established New Zealand's welfare state. It governed from 1957 to 1960, and again from 1972 to 1975. In 1974, prime minister Norman Kirk died in office, which contributed to a decline in party support. However, Labour won the popular vote in 1978 and 1981, with the first-past-the-post voting system preventing them from governing. Up to the 1980s, the party advocated a strong role for governments in economic and social matters. When it governed from 1984 to 1990, Labour's emergent neoliberal faction had a strong influence; the party broke precedent and transformed the economy from a protectionist one through extensive deregulation. As part of Rogernomics, Labour privatised state assets and greatly reduced the role of the state, causing a party split in 1989. Labour prime minister David Lange, a member of the party's left, also introduced New Zealand's nuclear-free policy. After a significant defeat in the 1990 election, Labour's neoliberal faction would largely defect from the party and form ACT New Zealand. Labour again became the largest party from 1999 to 2008, when it governed in coalition with, or based on negotiated support from, several minor parties; Helen Clark became the first Labour prime minister to secure a third term in office. Clark's government was marked by the creation of Kiwibank, a state-owned banking corporation; strong opposition to the Iraq War; and the foreshore and seabed controversy, which caused disillusioned Māori Labour MPs to split and create the Māori Party.

    In the 2017 election the party, under Jacinda Ardern, returned to prominence with its best showing since the 2005 general election, winning 36.9% of the party vote and 46 seats.[17] On 19 October 2017, Labour formed a minority coalition government with New Zealand First, with confidence and supply from the Green Party. In the 2020 general election, Labour won in a landslide, winning an overall majority of 10 and 50.01% of the vote.[18] In the 2023 election, Labour lost its majority to the National Party and subsequently returned to Opposition.[19] Since 2023, Chris Hipkins serves as the party's leader, while Carmel Sepuloni is the deputy leader

    1. ^ Moir, Jo. "Labour appoints Rob Salmond as new general secretary". Radio New Zealand. Retrieved 12 November 2020.
    2. ^ a b "Parties & Organisations". Progressive Alliance. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
    3. ^ "Election 2023: 'In It For You', Chris Hipkins launches slogan for Labour 2023 campaign".
    4. ^ "Reipa – Māori Dictionary". maoridictionary.co.nz. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
    5. ^ Boston, Jonathan; et al. (2003). New Zealand Votes: The General Election of 2002. Victoria University Press. p. 358.
    6. ^ "Voters' preexisting opinions shift to align with political party positions". Association for Psychological Science. 2 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018 – via Science Daily.
    7. ^ Papillon, Martin; Turgeon, Luc; Wallner, Jennifer; White, Stephen (2014). Comparing Canada: Methods and Perspectives on Canadian Politics. UBC Press. p. 126. ISBN 9780774827867. Retrieved 30 August 2016. [...] [I]n New Zealand politics, by the centre-left Labour Party and the centre-right National Party [...].
    8. ^ Khalil, Shaimaa (22 January 2023). "Chris Hipkins: Uphill battle looms for New Zealand's next PM". Wellington: BBC. Retrieved 22 January 2023. ...his centre-left Labour party.
    9. ^ "New Zealand Labour Party Policy Platform" (PDF). New Zealand Labour Party. March 2016. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2017. The Labour Party's values are based on our founding principle of Democratic Socialism.
    10. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Bean2009 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    11. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Aimer was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    12. ^ Cite error: The named reference founded was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
    13. ^ Miller 2005, pp. 32–33.
    14. ^ "New Zealand – Political process | Britannica". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
    15. ^ Schwartz, Matthew (17 October 2020). "New Zealand PM Ardern Wins Re-Election In Best Showing For Labour Party In Decades". NPR. Archived from the original on 17 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
    16. ^ Shaw, Richard; Hayward, Bronwyn; Vowles, Jack; Curtin, Jennifer; MacDonald, Lindsey (17 October 2020). "Jacinda Ardern and Labour returned in a landslide – 5 experts on a historic New Zealand election". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
    17. ^ "2017 General Election – Official Result". New Zealand Electoral Commission. Retrieved 7 October 2017.
    18. ^ "New Zealand election: Jacinda Ardern's Labour Party scores landslide win". BBC News. 17 October 2020. Archived from the original on 17 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
    19. ^ Corlett, Eva (14 October 2023). "New Zealand abandons Labour and shifts to the right as country votes for wholesale change". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 18 October 2023. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
     
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    8 July 1968 – The Chrysler wildcat strike begins in Detroit, Michigan.

    Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement

    The Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement (DRUM) was an organization of African-American workers formed in May 1968 in the Chrysler Corporation's Dodge Main assembly plant in Detroit, Michigan.

     
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    10 July 1962Telstar, the world's first communications satellite, is launched into orbit.

    Telstar

    Universal newsreel about Telstar 1

    Telstar is the name of various communications satellites. The first two Telstar satellites were experimental and nearly identical. Telstar 1 launched on top of a Thor-Delta rocket on July 10, 1962. It successfully relayed through space the first television pictures, telephone calls, and telegraph images, and provided the first live transatlantic television feed. Telstar 2 was launched May 7, 1963. Telstar 1 and 2—though no longer functional—still orbit the Earth.[1]

    1. ^ "1962-ALPHA EPSILON 1". US Space Objects Registry. June 19, 2013. Archived from the original on October 5, 2013. Retrieved October 2, 2013.
     

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